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Legal systems of the world
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The three major legal systems of the world today consist of civil law, common law and religious law. However, each country (see State law) often develops variations on each system or incorporates many other features into the system.
l law is the most widespread system of law in the world.
It is also sometimes known as Continental European law.
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The three major legal systems of the world today consist of civil law, common law and religious law. However, each country (see State law) often develops variations on each system or incorporates many other features into the system.
Civil law
Civil law is the most widespread system of law in the world.
It is also sometimes known as Continental European law. The central source of law that is recognised as authoritative are codifications in a constitution or statute passed by legislature, to amend a code. Civil law systems mainly derive from the Roman Empire, and more particularly, the Corpus Juris Civilis issued by the Emperor Justinian ca. 529AD. This was an extensive reform of the law in the Byzantine Empire, bringing it together into codified documents. Civil law was also partly influenced by religious laws such as Canon law and Islamic law. Civil law today, in theory, is interpreted rather than developed or made by judges. Only legislative enactments (rather than judicial precedents, as in common law) are considered legally binding.
Scholars of comparative law and economists promoting the legal origins theory usually subdivide civil law into four distinct groups:
- French civil law: in France, the Benelux countries, Italy, Spain and former colonies of those countries;
- German civil law: in Germany, Austria, Croatia, Switzerland, Greece, Portugal, Turkey, Japan, South Korea and the Republic of China;
- Scandinavian civil law: in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Finland and Iceland inherited the system from their neighbors.
- Chinese law is a mixture of civil law and socialist law.
A comprehensive list of countries that base their legal system on a codified civil law follows:
| Country | Description |
|---|
| The Civil Code of the Republic of Albania, 1991 really | | Based on Portuguese civil law | | Argentina | The Spanish legal tradition had a great influence on the Civil Code of Argentina, basically a work of the Argentine jurist Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield, who dedicated five years of his life on this task. The Civil Code came into effect on January 1, 1871. Beyond the influence of the Spanish legal tradition, the Argentinian Civil Code was also inspired by the Draft of the Brazilian Civil Code, the Draft of the Spanish Civil Code of 1851, the Napoleonic code and the Chilean Civil Code. The sources of this Civil Code also include various theoretical legal works, mainly of the great French jurists of the 19th century. It was the first Civil Law that consciously adopted as its cornerstone the distinction between i. rights from obligations and ii. real property rights, thus distancing itself from the French model.
The Argentinian Civil Code was also in effect in Paraguay, as per a Paraguayan law of 1880, until the new Civil Code went in force in 1987.
During the second half of the 20th century, the German legal theory became increasingly influential in Argentina. | | Courts apply the customary laws of Andorra, supplemented with Roman law and customary Catalan law. | | Armenia | Civil Code of the Republic of Armenia | | Based on Dutch civil law | | The Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (ABGB) of 1811 | | Azerbaijan | | | | | Belgium | Influenced by the Napoleonic Code | | | | Influenced by the Napoleonic Code | | Civil Law system influenced mostly by Germanic and Austro-Hungarian law systems | | Derived from the Portuguese civil law | | Bulgaria | Civil Law system influenced by Germanic and Roman law systems | | | | | | | | People's Republic of China | based on civil law system; derived from Soviet and continental civil code legal principles. | | | | | | | | | | Based on Portuguese civil law | | | | Chile | The Spanish legal tradition exercised an especially great influence on the civil code of Chile. On its turn, the Chilean civil code influenced to a large degree the drafting of the civil codes of other Latin-American states. For instance, the codes of Ecuador (1861) and Colombia (1873) constituted faithful reproductions of the Chilean code, but for very few exceptions. The compiler of the Civil Code of Chile, Andrés Bello, worked for its completion for almost 30 years, using elements, of the Spanish law on the one hand, and of other Western laws, especially of the French one, on the other. Indeed, it is noted that he consulted and used all of the codes that had been issued till then, starting from the era of Justinian.
The Civil Code came into effect on January 1, 1857. Its technique is regarded as perfect; it is distinguished for the clarity, logic and cohesiveness of its provisions. As mentioned by Arminjon, Nolde, and Wolff ('Traite de droit comparé', Paris, 1950-1952) Andrés Bello may be regarded as one of the great legislators of mankind. The influence of the Napoleonic code is great; it is observed however that e.g. in many provisions of property law, the solutions of the French code civil were put aside in favor of pure Roman law. | | Civil code introduced in 1873. Nearly faithful reproduction of the Chilean civil code | | First Civil Code (a part of the General Code or Carrillo Code) came into effect in 1841; its text was inspired by the South Peruvian Civil Code of Marshal Andres de Santa Cruz. The present Civil Code is into effect since January 1, 1888, and reveals the influenced by the Napoleonic Code and the Spanish Civil Code of 1889 (from its 1851 draft version). | | Kazneni zakon RH- Great influence of Austro- Hungarian law system | | Influenced by Spanish and American law with large elements of Communist legal theory. | | Originally based on ABGB (civil law code of Austro-Hungarian empire); influenced by legal system of Soviet Empire (1948 to 1989); reformed after the Velvet revolution in 1989 | | Denmark | Scandinavian-German civil law | | Dominican Republic | Based by the Napoleonic Code | | Civil code introduced in 1861. Nearly faithful reproduction of the Chilean civil code | | | | | | | | Based on the Napoleonic code (code civil of 1804) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | The Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch of 1900 ("BGB"). The BGB is influenced both by Roman and German law traditions. | | The Greek civil code of 1946, highly influenced by the German civil code of 1900 (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch); the Greek civil code replaced the Byzantine-Roman civil law in effect in Greece since its independence (??µ??? ???ta?? t?? ??at?????? ???s?? ????d??, Legal Provision of Eastern Mainland Greece, November 1821: '?? ?????????? ??µ?? t?? ?e?µ??st?? ???st?a??? ??t???at???? t?? ????d?? µ???? ?s????s? ?at? t? pa??? e?? t?? ??at?????? ???s?? ????da', 'The Social [i.e. Civil] Laws of the Dear Departed Christian Emperors of Greece [referring to the Byzantine Emperors] alone are in effect at present in Eastern Mainland Greece') | | Guatemala has had three Civil Codes: the first one from 1877, a new one introduced in 1933, and the one currently in force, which was passed in 1963. This Civil Code has suffered some reforms throughout the years, as well as a few derogations relating to areas which have subsequently been regulated by newer laws, such as the Code of Commerce and the Law of the National Registry of Persons. In general, it follows the tradition of the roman-French system of civil codification.
Regarding the theory of 'sources of law' in the Guatemalan legal system, the 'Ley del Organismo Judicial' recognizes 'the law' as the main legal source (in the sense of legislative texts), although it also establishes 'jurisprudence' as a complementary source. Although jurisprudence technically refers to judicial decisions in general, in practice it tends to be confused and identified with the concept of 'legal doctrine', which is a qualified series of identical resolutions in similar cases pronounced by higher courts (the Constitutional Court acting as a 'Tribunal de Amparo', and the Supreme Court acting as a 'Tribunal de Casación') whose theses become binding for lower courts. | | Influenced by the Napoleonic Code | | | | | | Based on Germanic traditional laws and influenced by Medieval Norwegian and Danish laws. | | Based on codified Roman law, with elements of the Napoleonic civil code; civil code of 1942 replaced the original one of 1865 | | Japan | Modeled after European (primarily German) civil law system. Japanese civil code of 1895. | | Largely influenced by Germany, medium influences from Russian and Soviet law. | | Modeled after French civil law | | Lithuania | Modeled after Dutch civil law | | Influenced by the Napoleonic Code | | Macau | Based on the Portuguese strand of the continental tradition, itself much influenced by Germany; also influenced by the law of the PRC | | "The origins of Mexico's legal system are both ancient and classical, based on the Greek, Roman and French legal systems, and the Mexican system shares more in common with other legal systems throughout the world (especially those in Latin America and most of continental Europe)..." From: http://www.mexonline.com/lawreview.htm Jaime B. Berger Stender Attorney at Law author, Tijuana, B.C., Mexico | | | | Netherlands | Influenced by the Napoleonic Code | | Scandinavian-German civil law. King Magnus VI the Lawmender unified the regional laws into a single code of law for the whole kingdom in 1274. This was replaced by Christian V's Norwegian Code of 1687. | | | | The Paraguayan Civil Code in force since 1987 is largely influenced by the Napoleonic Code and the Argentinian Code | | Based on civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations | | The Polish Civil Code in force since 1965 | | Influenced by the Napoleonic Code and later by the German Civil Law | | Republic of China (Taiwan) | | | Based on the Napoleonic Code | | | | Based on Portuguese civil law | | | Civil Code of Jovan Hadžic in 1844, among the oldest civil codes in the world | | | | A Civil Law system influenced mostly by Germanic and Austro-Hungarian law systems | | Spain | Influenced by the Napoleonic Code | | Scandinavian-German civil law. Like all Scandinavian legal systems, it is distinguished by its traditional character and for the fact that it did not adopt elements of Roman law. It is indeed worth mentioning that it assimilated very few elements of foreign laws whatsoever. It is also interesting that the Napoleonic Code had no influence in codification of law in Scandinavia. The historical basis of the law of Sweden, just as for all Nordic countries, is Old German law. Codification of the law started in Sweden during the 18th century, preceding the codifications of most other European countries. However, neither Sweden, nor any other Nordic state created a civil code of the kind of the Code Civil or the BGB. | | The Zivilgesetzbuch of 1908 and 1912 (obligations; fifth book) | | Modeled after the Swiss civil law (Zivilgesetzbuch) of 1907; this has been a conscious choice of Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the modern Turkish state, in order to abolish the Islamic law (Sharia), aiming at westernizing the country | | | Ukraine | Civil Code of Ukraine of 2004 | | | Represents an evolution of Soviet civil law. Overwhelmingly strong impact of the Communist legal theory is traceable. | | based on principles of Code of Canon Law | | Vietnam | Communist legal theory and French civil law |
Common law
Common law and equity are systems of law whose sources are the decisions in cases by judges. Alongside, every system will have a legislature that passes new laws and statutes, however these do not amend a collected and codified body of law. Common law developed in England, influenced by the Norman conquest of England which introduced legal concepts from Norman law. Common law was later inherited by the Commonwealth of Nations, and almost every former colony of the British Empire has adopted it (Malta being an exception). The doctrine of stare decisis or precedent by courts is the major difference to codified civil law systems.
Common law is currently in practice in Ireland, most of the United Kingdom (England and Wales and Northern Ireland), Australia, India (excluding Goa), South Africa, Canada (excluding Quebec), Hong Kong and the United States (excluding Louisiana) and many more places. In addition to these countries, several others have adapted the common law system into a mixed system. For example, Pakistan and Nigeria operate largely on a common law system, but incorporate religious law.
In the European Union the Court of Justice takes an approach mixing civil law (based on the treaties) with an attachment to the importance of case law. One of the most fundamental documents to shape common law is Magna Carta which placed limits on the power of the English Kings. It served as a kind of medieval bill of rights for the aristocracy and the judiciary who developed the law.
| Country | Description |
|---|
| | | based on English common law | | Australia | based on English common law | | based on English common law | | based on English common law | | based on English common law | | | | British Virgin Islands | based on English common law | | Canada | based on English common law, except in Quebec, where civil law system based on French law prevails | | based on English common law | England and Wales
(UK) | primarily common law, with early Roman and some modern continental influences | | based on English common law | | Gibraltar | based on English common law | | | based on English common law | | based on English common law | | Hong Kong | principally based on English common law | | based on English common law (except Goa which follows a Civil Law based on Portuguese Civil Law) | | Ireland | based on Irish law before 1922, which was itself based on English common law | | based on English common law | | based on English common law | | based on U.S. Law | | based on English common law | | New Zealand | based on English common law | Northern Ireland
(UK) | based on Irish law before 1921, which was itself based on English common law | | based on U.S. Law | | based on English common law | | based on English common law | | Singapore | based on English common law | | based on English common law | | based on English common law | | based on English common law | | based on English common law | | Federal court system based on English common law
Unlike the rest of the states in the United States, the state legal system of the State of Louisiana (USA) is based upon Napoleonic code (see below) |
Religious law
Religious law refers to the notion of a religious system or document being used as a legal source, though the methodology used varies. For example, the use of Jewish Halakha for public law has a static and unalterable quality, precluding amendment through legislative acts of government or development through judicial precedent; Christian Canon law is more similar to civil law in its use of civil codes; and Islamic Sharia law (and Fiqh jurisprudence) is based on legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (Qiyas), and is thus considered similar to common law.
The main kinds of religious law are Sharia in Islam, Halakha in Judaism, and Canon law in some Christian groups. In some cases these are intended purely as individual moral guidance, whereas in other cases they are intended and may be used as the basis for a country's legal system. The latter was particularly common during the Middle Ages.
The Islamic legal system of Sharia (Islamic law) and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) is the most widely used religious law, and one of the three most common legal systems in the world alongside common law and civil law. It is not a divine law, however, as only a fraction of Sharia law is based on the Qur'an and Sunnah, while the majority of its rulings are based on the Ulema (jurists) who used the methods of Ijma (consensus), Qiyas (analogical deduction), Ijtihad (reason) and Urf (common practice) to derive Fatwa (legal opinions). An Ulema was required to qualify for an Ijazah (legal doctorate) at a Madrasah (law school) before they could isse Fatwa. During the Islamic Golden Age, classical Islamic law may have had an influence on the development of common law and several civil law institutions. Sharia law governs a number of Islamic countries, including Saudi Arabia and Iran, though most countries use Sharia law only as a supplement to national law. It can relate to all aspects of civil law, including property rights, contracts or public law.
The Halakha is followed by orthodox and conservative Jews in both ecclesiastical and civil relations. No country is fully governed by Halakha, but two Jewish people may decide, because of personal belief, to have a dispute heard by a Jewish court, and be bound by its rulings.
Canon law is not a divine law, properly speaking, because it is not found in revelation. Instead, it is seen as human law inspired by the word of God and applying the demands of that revelation to the actual situation of the church. Canon law regulates the internal ordering of the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion. Canon law is amended and adapted by the legislative authority of the church, such as councils of bishops, single bishops for their respective sees, the Pope for the entire Catholic Church, and the British Parliament for the Church of England.
| Country | Description |
|---|
| Afghanistan | Islamic law | | Bangladesh | formerly based on English common law | | Islamic law | | | Islamic law | | mix of Islamic law and French Civil Codes, Islamic law largely applicable to family law. | | mix of Islamic law and French Civil Codes, Islamic law largely applicable to family law. | | Sharia and tribal custom laws | | Pakistan | mix of English common law and Islamic law | | Islamic law | | mix of English common law and Islamic law | | English common law, Islamic law and customary law | |
| Islamic law |
Pluralistic systems
Civil law and common law
| Country | Description |
|---|
| South African law (a mixed system) transferred uno acto through a proclamation of reception | | | | Based on English common law (Cyprus was a British colony 1878-1960), with admixtures of French and Greek civil and public law, Italian civil law, Indian contract law, Greek Orthodox canon law, Muslim religious law, and Ottoman civil law. | | | | Originally (1948) based on English common law; in the process, influenced by German civil law—for instance, between 1962 and 1981, the Knesset issued twenty (20) wide-ranging laws, which were clearly influenced by civil law, and were in the form of codes. Religious law plays a role, especially in matters of personal status and family law, and judicial and legislative decisions take into account Jewish law (halakhah) on occasion. | | South African law (a mixed system) transferred uno acto through a proclamation of reception | | (U.S.) | Based on the French Napoleonic Code; the modern legal system of the state of Louisiana has its origin in the Louisiana Purchase (i.e. the sale of Louisiana—not coterminous with the present eponymous state—by Napoleon to the United States of America in 1803), while federal laws (based on common law) are in effect in Louisiana as well. | | Initially based on Roman Law and eventually progressed to the Code de Rohan, Code Napoleon with influences from Italian Civil Law. English common law however is also a source of Maltese Law, most notably in Public Law | | | | South African law (a mixed system) transferred uno acto through a proclamation of reception | | Based on Spanish law; influenced by U.S. common law after 1898 Spanish and Philippine-American Wars, personal law based on sharia law applies to Muslims | | (U.S.) | Based on Spanish law; influenced by U.S. common law after 1898 (victory of the U.S. over Spain in the Spanish-American war of 1898 and cession of Puerto Rico to the U.S.) | Quebec
(Canada) | After the defeat of the French in the battle at the Plains of Abraham, the British allowed them to keep their language (French), their religion (Roman Catholicism), and their legal system (civil law). However, as Quebec is part of the Canadian Confederation, English-based laws applied at the federal level are in effect in Quebec also. | | | Scotland
(UK) | based on Roman and continental law, with common law elements dating back to the High Middle Ages | | The substantive civil law is based on the French Civil Code. Otherwise the criminal law and court procedure are based on the English common law. See . | | South Africa | An amalgam of English common law and Roman-Dutch civil law as well as Customary Law. | | An amalgam of English common law, Roman-Dutch civil law and Customary Law | | South African law (a mixed system) transferred uno acto through a proclamation of reception | | Thailand | | | | | South African law (a mixed system) transferred uno acto through a proclamation of reception |
Civil law and religious law
| Country | Description |
|---|
| Afghanistan | | | | | | | | | | | Based on Islamic law and French civil law system | | | | Based on civil law of Holland and adat (cultural law of Indonesia) | | Based on Islamic law and French and Spanish civil law system | | | Based on Islamic law and French civil law system | | Mainly based on French Civil Code and Ottoman Majalla, Islamic law applicable to family law. |
Common law and religious law
| Country | Description |
|---|
| | | | | | | based on English common law, separate personal law codes apply to Muslims, Christians, and Hindus except in Goa which follows Civil law based on Portuguese civil laws, but criminal penal law is uniform | | Malaysia | based on English common law, personal law based on sharia law applies to Muslims | | | | | | Pakistan | based on English Common Law, some Islamic Law applications in inheritance. Tribal Law in FATA | | | |
Systems by geography
Despite the usefulness of different classifications, every legal system has its own individual identity. Below are groups of legal systems, categorised by their geography. Click the "show" buttons on the right for the lists of countries.
See also
External links
- , Website of the Faculty of Law of the University of Ottawa
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- [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html Factbook list of legal systems]
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