Stigand (died 1072) was an
EnglishAnglo-Saxons is the term usually used to describe the invading Germanic tribes in the south and east of Great Britain from the early 5th century AD, and their creation of the English nation, to the Norman conquest of 1066...
churchman in pre-
Norman ConquestThe Norman conquest of England began in 1066 with the invasion of the Kingdom of England by the troops of William, Duke of Normandy, and his victory at the Battle of Hastings. This resulted in Norman control of England, which was firmly established during the subsequent few years. The Norman...
England. By 1020, he was serving as a royal chaplain and advisor. He was named
bishop of ElmhamThe Bishop of Norwich is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Norwich in the Province of Canterbury.The diocese covers most of the County of Norfolk and part of Suffolk...
in 1043, and then later
Bishop of WinchesterThe Bishop of Winchester is the head of the Church of England diocese of Winchester, with his cathedra at Winchester Cathedral in Hampshire.The bishop is one of five Church of England bishops to be among the Lords Spiritual regardless of their length of service. His diocese is one of the oldest and...
and
Archbishop of CanterburyAlso see Leaders of ChristianityThe Archbishop of Canterbury is the chief bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury, the see that churches must be in communion with in order to be...
. Stigand acted as an advisor to several members of the
Anglo-SaxonThe House of Wessex, also known as the House of Cerdic, refers to the family that ruled a kingdom in southwest England known as Wessex. This House was in power from the 6th century under Cerdic of Wessex to the unification of the Kingdoms of England....
and
NormanNorman dynasty is the usual designation for the English monarchs which immediately followed the Norman conquest and lasted until the Plantagenet dynasty came to power in 1154. It included William the Conqueror and his heirs down through 1135...
English royal dynasties, serving six successive kings.
ExcommunicatedExcommunication is a religious censure used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community. The word literally means putting [someone] out of communion. In some religions, excommunication includes spiritual condemnation of the member or group...
by several popes for his pluralism in holding the two
seesAn episcopal see is, in the original sense, the official seat of a bishop. This seat, which is also referred to as the bishop's cathedra, is placed in the bishop's principal church, which is therefore called the bishop's cathedral...
of Winchester and Canterbury concurrently, he was finally deposed in 1070, and his estates and personal wealth were confiscated by
William the ConquerorWilliam I , better known as William the Conqueror, was Duke of Normandy from AD 1035 and King of England from late 1066 to his death. William is sometimes also referred to as "William II" in relation to his position as the second Duke of Normandy of that name...
. Stigand was imprisoned at
WinchesterWinchester is the county town of Hampshire, in South East England. It lies at the heart of the wider City of Winchester, a local government district, and is located at the western end of the South Downs, along the course of the River Itchen...
, where he died without regaining his liberty.
Stigand served King
CanuteCnut the Great , also known as Canute or Knut or Cnut Sweynsson, was a Viking king of England and Denmark, Norway, and parts of Sweden...
as a chaplain at a royal foundation at
AshingdonAshingdon is a village and civil parish in Essex, England. It is located about 4 km north-northwest of Rochford and is 21 km southeast from the county town of Chelmsford...
in 1020, and as an advisor then and later. He continued in his role of advisor during the reigns of Canute's sons,
Harold HarefootHarold Harefoot, or Harold I, was King of England from 1035 to 1040. His cognomen "Harefoot" referred to his speed, and the skill of his huntsmanship. He was the son of Cnut the Great, king of England, Denmark, and Norway by Ælfgifu of Northampton...
and
HarthacanuteHarthacnut was a Danish-Norman King of Denmark from 1035 to 1042 as well as King of England from 1040 to 1042...
. When Canute's stepson
Edward the ConfessorEdward the confessor , son of Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy, was one of the last English kings of England and is usually regarded as the last king of the House of Wessex, ruling from 1042 to 1066 Edward the confessor ...
succeeded Harthacanute, Stigand likely became England's main administrator. Monastic writers of the time accused Stigand of extorting money and lands from the church. By 1066, the only estates richer than Stigand's were the royal estates and those of
Harold GodwinsonHarold Godwinson or Harold II was the last Anglo-Saxon King of England before the Norman Conquest. Harold reigned from 5 January 1066, until his death at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October of that same year, fighting the Norman invaders, led by William the Conqueror...
.
In 1043 Edward appointed Stigand to the see, or bishopric, of
ElmhamNorth Elmham is a village and civil parish in the English county of Norfolk.It covers an area of and had a population of 1,428 in 624 households as of the 2001 census. For the purposes of local government, it falls within the district of Breckland....
. Four years later, in 1047, he was appointed to the see of
WinchesterWinchester is the county town of Hampshire, in South East England. It lies at the heart of the wider City of Winchester, a local government district, and is located at the western end of the South Downs, along the course of the River Itchen...
and then in 1052 to the
archdiocese of CanterburyThe Province of Canterbury, also called the Southern Province, is one of two ecclesiastical provinces making up the Church of England. It consists of 30 dioceses, covering roughly the southern two-thirds of England, along with the Channel Islands, the Falkland Islands, a few parishes in Wales, and...
, which Stigand held jointly with that of Winchester. Five successive popes, including
Nicholas IINicholas II , born Gérard de Bourgogne, Pope from 1059 to July 1061, was at the time of his election the Bishop of Florence.-Antipope Benedict X:...
and
Alexander IIAlexander II , born Anselmo da Baggio, was Pope from 1061 to 1073.He was born in Milan. As bishop of Lucca he had been an energetic coadjutor with Hildebrand in endeavouring to suppress simony, and to enforce the celibacy of the clergy...
,
excommunicatedExcommunication is a religious censure used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community. The word literally means putting [someone] out of communion. In some religions, excommunication includes spiritual condemnation of the member or group...
Stigand for holding both Winchester and Canterbury. Stigand was present at the deathbed of King Edward and at the coronation of
Harold GodwinsonHarold Godwinson or Harold II was the last Anglo-Saxon King of England before the Norman Conquest. Harold reigned from 5 January 1066, until his death at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October of that same year, fighting the Norman invaders, led by William the Conqueror...
as king of England in 1066. After Harold's death, Stigand submitted to
William the ConquerorWilliam I , better known as William the Conqueror, was Duke of Normandy from AD 1035 and King of England from late 1066 to his death. William is sometimes also referred to as "William II" in relation to his position as the second Duke of Normandy of that name...
. On Christmas Day, 1066 Ealdred, the
Archbishop of YorkArchbishop of York is a high-ranking cleric in the Church of England, second only to the Archbishop of Canterbury. He is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of York and metropolitan of the Province of York, which covers the northern portion of England as well as the Isle of Man...
crowned William King of England. Stigand's excommunication meant that he could only assist at the coronation.
Despite growing pressure for his deposition, Stigand continued to attend the royal court and to consecrate bishops, until in 1070 he was deposed by papal legates and imprisoned at Winchester. His intransigence towards the papacy was used as propaganda by Norman advocates of the view that the English church was backward and needed reform.
Early life
Neither the year nor the date of Stigand's birth is known. He was born in
East AngliaEast Anglia is a traditional name for a region of eastern England, named after an ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdom, the Kingdom of the East Angles. The Angles took their name from their homeland Angeln, in northern Germany. East Anglia initially consisted of Norfolk and Suffolk, but upon the marriage of...
, possibly in
NorwichNorwich is a city in Norfolk, East Anglia which is in Eastern England. It is the regional administrative centre and county city of Norfolk...
, to a family that appears to have been prosperous. The family was of mixed English and Scandinavian ancestry, as is shown by the fact that Stigand's name was Norse but his brother's was English. His brother Æthelmær, also a cleric, later succeeded Stigand as bishop of Elmham. His sister held land in Norwich, but her given name is unrecorded.
Stigand first appears in the historical record in 1020 as a royal chaplain to King
CanuteCnut the Great , also known as Canute or Knut or Cnut Sweynsson, was a Viking king of England and Denmark, Norway, and parts of Sweden...
of England (reigned 1016–1035). In that year he was appointed to Canute's church at
AshingdonAshingdon is a village and civil parish in Essex, England. It is located about 4 km north-northwest of Rochford and is 21 km southeast from the county town of Chelmsford...
, or Assandun, which was dedicated by the reforming bishop Wulfstan of York. Little is known of Stigand's life during Canute's reign. He did witness occasional charters, which show that he had a place at the royal court. After Canute's death, Stigand successively served Canute's sons,
Harold HarefootHarold Harefoot, or Harold I, was King of England from 1035 to 1040. His cognomen "Harefoot" referred to his speed, and the skill of his huntsmanship. He was the son of Cnut the Great, king of England, Denmark, and Norway by Ælfgifu of Northampton...
(reigned 1035–1040) and
HarthacanuteHarthacnut was a Danish-Norman King of Denmark from 1035 to 1042 as well as King of England from 1040 to 1042...
(reigned 1040–1042). When Harthacanute died, Stigand became an advisor to
Emma of NormandyEmma , was a daughter of Richard the Fearless, Duke of Normandy, by his second wife Gunnora. She was Queen consort of the Kingdom of England twice, by successive marriages: first as the second wife to Æthelred the Unready of England ; and then as a second wife to Cnut the Great of Denmark...
, Canute's widow and the mother of Harthacanute and his successor
Edward the ConfessorEdward the confessor , son of Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy, was one of the last English kings of England and is usually regarded as the last king of the House of Wessex, ruling from 1042 to 1066 Edward the confessor ...
. He may have been her chaplain. It is possible that Stigand was already an advisor to Emma while Canute was alive, and that he owed his position at Ashingdon to Emma's influence and favour. Because little is known of Stigand's activities before his appointment as a bishop, it is difficult to determine to whom he owed his position.
Bishop of Elmham and Winchester
Shortly after Edward the Confessor's coronation on 3 April 1043, Stigand was appointed to the
see of ElmhamThe Bishop of Norwich is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Norwich in the Province of Canterbury.The diocese covers most of the County of Norfolk and part of Suffolk...
, probably on Emma's advice. This was the first episcopal appointment of Edward's reign. The diocese of Elmham covered
East AngliaEast Anglia is a traditional name for a region of eastern England, named after an ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdom, the Kingdom of the East Angles. The Angles took their name from their homeland Angeln, in northern Germany. East Anglia initially consisted of Norfolk and Suffolk, but upon the marriage of...
, in eastern England, and was one of the poorer episcopal sees at that time. He was consecrated bishop in 1043, but later in the year Edward deposed Stigand and deprived him of his wealth. During the next year, however, Edward returned Stigand to office. The reasons for the deposition are unknown, but it was probably connected to the simultaneous fall from power of the dowager queen, Emma. Rumours recorded a century later included some that Emma and Stigand were having an affair, and the alleged affair was supposedly the cause of their fall from power. Other sources state that Emma had invited King
Magnus I of NorwayMagnus I was the King of Norway from 1035 to 1047 and the King of Denmark from 1042 to 1047. He was the illegitimate son of King Olaf Haraldsson, also known as Saint Olaf, by his concubine Alvhild...
, a rival claimant to the English throne, to invade England and had offered her personal wealth to aid Magnus. Some suspected that Stigand had urged Emma to support Magnus, and claimed that his deposition was because of this. Contributing factors in Emma and Stigand's fall included Emma's wealth, and dislike of her political influence, which was linked to the reign of the unpopular Harthacanute.
By 1046, Stigand began to witness charters of Edward the Confessor, showing that he was once more in royal favour. In 1047 Stigand was translated to the
see of WinchesterThe Bishop of Winchester is the head of the Church of England diocese of Winchester, with his cathedra at Winchester Cathedral in Hampshire.The bishop is one of five Church of England bishops to be among the Lords Spiritual regardless of their length of service. His diocese is one of the oldest and...
, but he retained Elmham until 1052. He may have owed the promotion to Earl
Godwin of WessexGodwin of Wessex , also known as Goodwin, was one of the most powerful lords in England under the Danish king Canute the Great and his successors. Canute made him the first Earl of Wessex...
, the father-in-law of King Edward; although some historians dispute this. Emma, who had retired to Winchester after regaining Edward's favour, may also have influenced the appointment, either alone or in concert with Godwin. After his appointment to Winchester, Stigand was a witness to all of the surviving charters of King Edward from the period 1047 to 1052.
Some historians, such as
Frank BarlowFrank Barlow CBE FBA FRSL was a British historian, known particularly for biographies of medieval figures.Barlow studied at St John's College, Oxford. He was Professor of History at the University of Exeter from 1953 until he retired in 1976 and became Emeritus Professor....
and Emma Mason, state that he supported Earl Godwin in his quarrel with Edward the Confessor in 1051–1052; others, including Ian Walker, hold that he was neutral. Stigand, whether or not he was a supporter of Godwin's, did not go into exile with the earl. The quarrel started over a fight between
Eustace of BoulogneEustace II, was count of Boulogne from 1049-1087, fought on the Norman side at the Battle of Hastings, and afterwards received a large honour in England....
, brother-in-law of the king, and men of the town of Dover. The king ordered Godwin to punish the town, and the earl refused. Continued pressure from Edward undermined Godwin's position, and the earl and his family fled England in 1051. The earl returned in 1052 with a substantial armed force, but eventually reached a peaceful accord with the king. Some medieval sources state that Stigand took part in the negotiations that reached a peace between the king and his earl, and the Canterbury manuscript of the
Anglo-Saxon ChronicleThe Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The annals were initially created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great. Multiple manuscript copies were made and distributed to monasteries...
calls Stigand the king's chaplain and advisor during the negotiations.
Appointment to Canterbury and issues with the papacy
The Archbishopric of Canterbury became drawn into the conflict between Edward and Godwin.
Pope Leo IXPope Saint Leo IX , born Bruno of Eguisheim-Dagsburg , was Pope from February 12, 1049 to his death. He is regarded as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church, with the feast day of April 19...
was beginning a reform movement later known as the
Gregorian ReformThe Gregorian Reforms were a series of reforms initiated by Pope Gregory VII and the circle he formed in the papal curia, circa 1050–80, which dealt with the moral integrity and independence of the clergy...
. Leo first focused on improving the clergy and prohibiting
simonySimony is the ecclesiastical crime of paying for holy offices or positions in the hierarchy of a church, named after Simon Magus, who appears in the Acts of the Apostles 8:18-24. Simon Magus offers the disciples of Jesus, Peter and John payment so that anyone he would place his hands on would...
– the buying and selling of clerical and ecclesiastical offices. In 1049 Leo IX publicly pronounced that he would take more interest in English church matters and would investigate episcopal candidates more strictly before confirming them. When Archbishop
EdsigeEdsige, also Eadsige, Eadsimus, or Eadsin , was Archbishop of Canterbury, and crowned St. Edward the Confessor.-Biography:...
of Canterbury died in 1051 the monks of the cathedral chapter elected Æthelric, a relative of Earl Godwin's, as archbishop. King Edward opposed the election and instead appointed
Robert of JumiègesRobert of Jumièges was the first Norman Archbishop of Canterbury. He had previously served as prior of the Abbey of St Ouen at Rouen in France, before becoming abbot of Jumièges Abbey, near Rouen, in 1037...
, who was Norman and already
Bishop of LondonThe Bishop of London is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of London in the Province of Canterbury.The diocese covers 458 km² of 17 boroughs of Greater London north of the River Thames and a small part of the County of Surrey...
. Besides furthering Edward's quarrel with Godwin, the appointment signalled that there were limits to Edward's willingness to compromise on ecclesiastical reform.
Although not known as a reformer before his appointment, Robert returned from Rome in 1051, where he had gone to be confirmed by the papacy, and opposed the king's choice for
Bishop of LondonThe Bishop of London is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of London in the Province of Canterbury.The diocese covers 458 km² of 17 boroughs of Greater London north of the River Thames and a small part of the County of Surrey...
on the grounds that the candidate was not suitable. Robert's attempts to recover church property that had been appropriated by Earl Godwin contributed to the quarrel between the earl and the king. When Godwin returned to England in 1052, Robert was outlawed and exiled. King Edward then appointed Stigand to the archbishopric. The appointment was either a reward from Godwin for Stigand's support during the conflict with Edward or a reward from King Edward for successfully negotiating a peaceful conclusion to the crisis in 1052. Stigand was the first non-monk to be named to either English archbishopric since before the days of
DunstanDunstan was an Abbot of Glastonbury, a Bishop of Worcester, a Bishop of London, and an Archbishop of Canterbury, later canonised as a saint. His work restored monastic life in England and reformed the English Church...
(archbishop from 959 to 988).
The papacy refused to recognise Stigand's elevation, as Robert was still alive and had not been deprived of office by a pope. Robert of Jumièges appealed to Leo IX, who summoned Stigand to Rome. When Stigand did not appear, he was excommunicated. Historian Nicholas Brooks holds the view that Stigand was not excommunicated at this time, but rather was ordered to refrain from any archiepiscopal functions, such as the consecration of bishops. He argues that in 1062 papal legates sat in council with Stigand, something they would not have done had he been excommunicated. The legates did nothing to alter Stigand's position either, although one of the legates later helped depose Stigand in 1070. However Pope Leo IX and his successors,
Victor IIVictor II , born Gebhard, Count of Calw, Tollenstein, and Hirschberg, was Pope from 1055 to 1057. He was one of a series of German reform Popes.-Life:...
and
Stephen IXPope Stephen IX was Pope from August 3, 1057 to March 1058.His baptismal name was Frederick of Lorraine , and he was a younger brother of Godfrey III, Duke of Lower Lorraine, who, as Marquis of Tuscany , played a prominent part in the politics of the period.Frederick, who had...
, continued to regard Robert as the rightful archbishop.
Stigand did not travel to Rome to receive a
palliumThe Pallium is an ecclesiastical vestment in the Roman Catholic Church, originally peculiar to the Pope, but for many centuries bestowed by him on metropolitans and primates as a symbol of the jurisdiction delegated to them by the Holy See...
, the band worn around a neck that is the symbol of an archbishop's authority, from the pope. Traveling to Rome for the pallium had become a custom, practiced by a number of his predecessors. Instead, some medieval chroniclers state that he used Robert of Jumièges' pallium. It is not known if Stigand even petitioned the papacy for a pallium soon after his appointment. Due to the reform movement, Stigand probably knew the request would be unsuccessful. In 1058,
Antipope Benedict XPope/Antipope Benedict X , was born John Mincius, and later became Cardinal Bishop of Velletri. He was elected in 1058, his election having been arranged by the Count of Tusculum. However, a number of Cardinals alleged that the election was irregular, and that votes had been bought; these cardinals...
, who opposed much of the reform movement, gave Stigand a pallium. However, Benedict was deposed in the following year; the reforming party declared Benedict an
anti-popeAn antipope is a person who, in opposition to a sitting Bishop of Rome, makes a widely accepted claim to be the Pope. In the past, antipopes were typically those supported by a fairly significant faction of cardinals and kingdoms...
, and nullified all his acts, including Stigand's pallium grant. The exact circumstances that led to Benedict granting a pallium are unknown, whether it was at Stigand's request or was given without prompting.
After his translation to Canterbury, Stigand released Elmham to his brother Æthelmær, but retained the bishopric of Winchester. Canterbury and Winchester were the two richest sees in England, and while precedent allowed the holding of a rich see along with a poor one, holding two rich sees in conjunction had no such rationale. He may have retained Winchester because of avarice, or it may have been that his hold in Canterbury was not secure. Besides these, he held the
abbey of GloucesterGloucester Cathedral, or the Cathedral Church of St Peter and the Holy and Undivided Trinity, in Gloucester, England, stands in the north of the city near the river...
and the
abbey of ElyEly Cathedral is the principal church of the Diocese of Ely, in Cambridgeshire, England, and the seat of the Bishop of Ely...
and perhaps other abbeys also. Whatever his reasons, the retention of Winchester made Stigand a
pluralistOriginally a benefice was a gift of land for life as a reward for services rendered. The word comes from the Latin noun beneficium, meaning "benefit"...
, or the holder of more than one
beneficeOriginally a benefice was a gift of land for life as a reward for services rendered. The word comes from the Latin noun beneficium, meaning "benefit"...
at the same time. This was a practice that was targeted for elimination by the growing reform movement in the church.
Five successive popes (Leo IX, Victor II, Stephen IX,
Nicholas IINicholas II , born Gérard de Bourgogne, Pope from 1059 to July 1061, was at the time of his election the Bishop of Florence.-Antipope Benedict X:...
and
Alexander IIAlexander II , born Anselmo da Baggio, was Pope from 1061 to 1073.He was born in Milan. As bishop of Lucca he had been an energetic coadjutor with Hildebrand in endeavouring to suppress simony, and to enforce the celibacy of the clergy...
) excommunicated Stigand for holding both Winchester and Canterbury at the same time. It has been suggested by the historian Emma Mason that Edward refused to remove Stigand because this would have undermined the royal prerogative to appoint bishops and archbishops without papal input. Further hurting Stigand's position, Pope Nicholas II in 1061 declared pluralism to be uncanonical unless approved by the pope.
Stigand was later accused of simony by monastic chroniclers, but all such accusations date to after 1066, and are thus suspect due to the post-
ConquestThe Norman conquest of England began in 1066 with the invasion of the Kingdom of England by the troops of William, Duke of Normandy, and his victory at the Battle of Hastings. This resulted in Norman control of England, which was firmly established during the subsequent few years. The Norman...
desire to vilify the English Church as corrupt and backward. The medieval chronicler
William of PoitiersWilliam of Poitiers , Norman chronicler, was born in Les Préaux, near Pont-Audemer, and belonged to an influential Norman family...
also claimed that Stigand in 1052 agreed that William of Normandy, the future
William the ConquerorWilliam I , better known as William the Conqueror, was Duke of Normandy from AD 1035 and King of England from late 1066 to his death. William is sometimes also referred to as "William II" in relation to his position as the second Duke of Normandy of that name...
, should succeed King Edward. This fact was used as propaganda after the Conquest, but the historian
David BatesProfessor David Bates is a British historian.He was Professor of Medieval History at the University of Glasgow from 1994 until 2003. He then took up the post of director of the Institute of Historical Research at the University of London between 2003 and 2008, and now holds a chair in Medieval...
, among other historians, notes that this is unlikely to have happened. The position of Stigand as head of the church in England was used to good effect by the Normans in their propaganda before, during and after the Conquest.
Ecclesiastical affairs
The
diocese of YorkArchbishop of York is a high-ranking cleric in the Church of England, second only to the Archbishop of Canterbury. He is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of York and metropolitan of the Province of York, which covers the northern portion of England as well as the Isle of Man...
took advantage of Stigand's difficulties with the papacy and encroached on the suffragans, or bishops owing obedience to an archbishop, normally subject to Canterbury. York had long been held in common with
WorcesterThe Bishop of Worcester is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Worcester in the Province of Canterbury, England.The diocese covers the county of Worcestershire, the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley, and parts of the City of Wolverhampton. The Episcopal see is at the Cathedral Church of...
, but during the period when Stigand was excommunicated, the see of York also claimed oversight over the sees of
LichfieldThe Bishop of Lichfield is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Lichfield in the Province of Canterbury.The diocese covers 4,516 km² of the counties of Staffordshire, Shropshire, Warwickshire and West Midlands. The bishop's seat is located in the Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin...
and
DorchesterThe Bishop of Lincoln heads the Diocese of Lincoln in the Province of Canterbury. The bishops were in communion with the See of Rome until the English Reformation of the 1530s....
. In 1062, however, papal legates of
Alexander IIAlexander II , born Anselmo da Baggio, was Pope from 1061 to 1073.He was born in Milan. As bishop of Lucca he had been an energetic coadjutor with Hildebrand in endeavouring to suppress simony, and to enforce the celibacy of the clergy...
came to England. They did not depose Stigand, and even consulted with him and treated him as archbishop. He was allowed to attend the council they held and was an active participant with the legates in the business of the council.
Many of the bishops in England did not want to be consecrated by Stigand. Both Giso of Wells and
Walter of Hereford-Life:He was a native of Lorraine, although some sources state he was a Norman. He was chaplain to Queen Edith, wife of Edward the Confessor sometime before his appointment as bishop. He was appointed to the see of Hereford about Christmas of 1060...
travelled to Rome to be consecrated by the Pope in 1061, rather than be consecrated by Stigand. During the brief period that he held a legitimate pallium, however, Stigand did consecrate
Aethelric of SelseyÆthelric was the second to last medieval Bishop of Selsey in England before the see was moved to Chichester. Consecrated a bishop in 1058, he was deposed in 1070 for unknown reasons and then imprisoned by King William I of England...
and
Siward of Rochester-Life:He was abbot of Chertsey Abbey, a Benedictine abbey in Surrey before he was selected for the see of Rochester. He was consecrated in 1058. He died in 1075. His death was commemorated on 30 October, so he probably died on that date in 1075...
.
Abbots of monasteries, however, came to Stigand for consecration throughout his time as archbishop. These included not only abbots from monastic houses inside his province, such as
ÆthelsigeÆthelsige, Abbot of Abingdon.Æthelsige succeeded Wulfgar in 1016 .He lived in the town today called Elswick, known then as "'Edelesuuic," literally "the farm of a man named Æthelsige." Before he died in 1018 he was principal in the treaty between Danes and English to observe the laws of Edgar...
as abbot of
St Augustine's AbbeySt Augustine's Abbey was a Benedictine abbey in Canterbury, Kent, England.-Early history:In the year 597, Saint Augustine arrived in England, having been sent by Pope Gregory I, on what might nowadays be called a revival mission. The King of Kent at this time was Ethelbert, who happened to be...
in Canterbury, but also Baldwin as
Abbot of Bury St. EdmundsAbbot of Bury St. Edmunds was the title used by the head of the Benedictine monastery Bury St. Edmunds Abbey in the county of Suffolk, England. The following table lists the abbots from the foundation of the abbey in 1020 until 1216....
and Thurstan as
Abbot of Ely. After the Norman Conquest, Stigand was accused of selling the office of abbot, but no abbot was deposed for buying the office, so the charge is suspect.
Stigand was probably the most lavish clerical donor of his period, when the great of the land gave to churches on an unprecedented scale. He served as a benefactor to the
abbey of Ely, and gave large gold or silver crucifixes to Ely,
St Augustine's AbbeySt Augustine's Abbey was a Benedictine abbey in Canterbury, Kent, England.-Early history:In the year 597, Saint Augustine arrived in England, having been sent by Pope Gregory I, on what might nowadays be called a revival mission. The King of Kent at this time was Ethelbert, who happened to be...
in Canterbury,
Bury St. Edmunds AbbeyThe Abbey of Bury St Edmunds was once among the richest Benedictine monasteries in England. Its ruins lie in Bury St Edmunds, a town in the county of Suffolk, England.-History:...
, and to his
cathedral churchA cathedral is a Christian church that contains the seat of a bishop...
at Winchester. The ones given to Ely, Bury and Winchester all appear to have had about life-size figures of Christ with matching figures of the Virgin and
John the EvangelistSaint John the Evangelist , or the Beloved Disciple, is traditionally the name used to refer to the author of the Gospel of John and the First Epistle of John. Traditionally he has been identified with John the Apostle...
, as is recorded in the monastic histories, and were probably permanently mounted over the altar or elsewhere. These would have been made with thin sheets of precious metal over a wooden core. No comparably early
roodRood has several distinct meanings, all derived from the same basic etymology. The two most significant are an obsolete English measure of area of length, and a term for a cross or crucifix, especially a large one in a church....
crosses with the side figures of Mary and John seem to survive, though we have large painted wooden crucifixes like the German Gero Cross of ca. 980, and the Volto Santo of Lucca (renewed with a later figure), which is known to have inspired Leofstan, Abbot of Bury (d. 1065) to create a similar figure, perhaps covered in precious metal, on his return from a visit to Rome. To Ely he gave gold and silver vessels for the altar, and a
chasubleThe chasuble is the outermost liturgical vestment worn by clergy for the celebration of the Eucharist in Western-tradition Christian Churches that use full vestments, primarily in the Roman Catholic Church, in the...
embroidered in gold "of such inestimable workmanship and worth, that none in the kingdom is considered richer or more valuable". Although it does not appear that Stigand ever traveled to Rome, there are indications that Stigand did go on pilgrimage. A 12th-century life of Saint
Willibrord__notoc__Saint Willibrord was a Northumbrian missionary, known as the "Apostle to the Frisians" in the modern Netherlands. He became the first Bishop of Utrecht and died at Echternach, Luxembourg.His father, Wilgils or St...
, written at the
Abbey of EchternachThe Abbey of Echternach is a Benedictine monastery in the city of Echternach, in eastern Luxembourg. The Abbey was founded by Willibrord, the patron saint of Luxembourg, in the seventh century...
in what is now
LuxembourgLuxembourg , officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , is a small, landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany...
, records that "to this place also came Stigand, the eminent archbishop of the English". Stigand is recorded as giving rich gifts to the abbey as well as relics of saints.
Advisor to the king
During Edward's reign, Stigand was an influential advisor at court and used his position to increase his own wealth as well as that of his friends and family. Contemporary valuations of the lands he controlled at the death of King Edward, as listed in
Domesday BookThe Domesday Book is the record of the great survey of England completed in 1086, executed for William I of England, or William the Conqueror...
, come to an annual income of about 2500 pounds. There is little evidence, however, that he enriched either Canterbury or Winchester. He also appointed his followers to sees within his diocese in 1058, having
Siward-Life:He was abbot of Chertsey Abbey, a Benedictine abbey in Surrey before he was selected for the see of Rochester. He was consecrated in 1058. He died in 1075. His death was commemorated on 30 October, so he probably died on that date in 1075...
named
Bishop of RochesterThe Bishop of Rochester is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Rochester in the Province of Canterbury.The diocese covers the west of the county of Kent. The see is in the city of Rochester where the seat is located at The Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Virgin Mary, which...
and
ÆthelricÆthelric was the second to last medieval Bishop of Selsey in England before the see was moved to Chichester. Consecrated a bishop in 1058, he was deposed in 1070 for unknown reasons and then imprisoned by King William I of England...
installed as
Bishop of SelseyThe Bishop of Chichester is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Chichester in the Province of Canterbury. The diocese covers the Counties of East and West Sussex. The see is in the City of Chichester where the seat is located at the Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity...
. Between his holding of two sees and the appointment of his men to other sees in the southeast of England, Stigand was an important figure in defending the coastline against invasion.
Stigand may have been in charge of the royal administration. He may also have been behind the effort to locate
Edward the AthelingEdward the Exile , also called Edward Ætheling, son of King Edmund Ironside and of Ealdgyth, gained the name of "Exile" from his life spent mostly far from the England of his forefathers. After the Danish conquest of England in 1016 Canute had him and his brother, Edmund, exiled to the Continent...
and his brother Edmund after 1052, possibly to secure a more acceptable heir to King Edward. His landholdings were spread across ten counties, and in some of those counties, his lands were larger than the king's holdings. Although Norman propagandists claimed that as early as 1051 or 1052 King Edward promised the throne of England to Duke
William of NormandyWilliam I , better known as William the Conqueror, was Duke of Normandy from AD 1035 and King of England from late 1066 to his death. William is sometimes also referred to as "William II" in relation to his position as the second Duke of Normandy of that name...
, who later became King William the Conqueror, there is little contemporary evidence of such a promise from non-Norman sources. By 1053, Edward probably realized that he would not have a son from his marriage, and he and his advisors began to search for an heir. Edward the Atheling was the son of King
Edmund IronsideEdmund Ironside or Edmund II was king of the English from 23 April to 30 November 1016. The cognomen "Ironside" refers to his efforts to fend off a Danish invasion led by King Cnut. His actual authority was limited to Wessex, or the area south of Thames. The north was controlled by Cnut, who...
, (reigned 1016), and Edward had been exiled from England in 1017, after his father's death. Although Ealdred, the
Bishop of WorcesterThe Bishop of Worcester is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Worcester in the Province of Canterbury, England.The diocese covers the county of Worcestershire, the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley, and parts of the City of Wolverhampton. The Episcopal see is at the Cathedral Church of...
actually went to the Continent in search of Edward, Ian Walker, the biographer of King Harold Godwinson, feels that Stigand was behind the effort. In the end, although Edward did return to England, he died soon after his return, leaving a young son Edgar the Ætheling.
Norman Conquest
King Edward, on his deathbed, left the crown to his brother-in-law
Harold GodwinsonHarold Godwinson or Harold II was the last Anglo-Saxon King of England before the Norman Conquest. Harold reigned from 5 January 1066, until his death at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October of that same year, fighting the Norman invaders, led by William the Conqueror...
, the son of Earl Godwin. Stigand performed the funeral services for Edward. Norman writers claimed that Stigand crowned Harold as king in January 1066. This is generally considered propaganda, and not true, as it was in William's interest to portray Harold as uncanonically crowned. If Harold was not properly crowned, then William was merely claiming his rightful inheritance, and not deposing a rightful king. The
Bayeux TapestryThe Bayeux Tapestry is a 50 cm by 70 m long embroidered cloth—not an actual tapestry—which explains the events leading up to the Norman Conquest of England as well as the events of the invasion itself. The Tapestry is annotated in Latin...
depicts Stigand at Harold's coronation, although not actually placing the crown on Harold's head. The English sources claim that Ealdred,
Archbishop of YorkArchbishop of York is a high-ranking cleric in the Church of England, second only to the Archbishop of Canterbury. He is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of York and metropolitan of the Province of York, which covers the northern portion of England as well as the Isle of Man...
, crowned Harold, while the Norman sources claim that Stigand did so, with the conflict between the various sources probably tracing to the post-Conquest desire to vilify Harold and depict his coronation as improper. Current historical research has shown that this ceremony was performed by Ealdred, due to the controversy about Stigand's position. However, one historian,
Pauline StaffordPauline Stafford is Professor Emerita of Early Medieval History at Liverpool University in England. Her work focuses on the history of women and gender in England from the eighth to the early twelfth centuries, and on the same topics in Frankish history during the eighth and ninth centuries...
, theorizes that both archbishops may have consecrated Harold. Another historian,
Frank BarlowFrank Barlow CBE FBA FRSL was a British historian, known particularly for biographies of medieval figures.Barlow studied at St John's College, Oxford. He was Professor of History at the University of Exeter from 1953 until he retired in 1976 and became Emeritus Professor....
, writing in 1979, felt that the fact that some of the English sources do not name who consecrated Harold "tip(s) the balance in favour of Stigand".
Stigand did support Harold, and was present at Edward the Confessor's deathbed. Stigand's controversial position may have influenced
Pope Alexander IIAlexander II , born Anselmo da Baggio, was Pope from 1061 to 1073.He was born in Milan. As bishop of Lucca he had been an energetic coadjutor with Hildebrand in endeavouring to suppress simony, and to enforce the celibacy of the clergy...
's support of
William the ConquerorWilliam I , better known as William the Conqueror, was Duke of Normandy from AD 1035 and King of England from late 1066 to his death. William is sometimes also referred to as "William II" in relation to his position as the second Duke of Normandy of that name...
's invasion of England. The reformers, led by Archdeacon Hildebrand, later
Pope Gregory VIIPope Saint Gregory VII , born Hildebrand of Sovana , was Pope from April 22, 1073, until his death...
, opposed the older type of bishop, rich and installed by the lay powers.
After the death of Harold at the
Battle of HastingsThe Battle of Hastings was the decisive Norman victory in the Norman Conquest of England. It was fought between the Norman army of Duke William of Normandy, and the English army led by Harold II...
, Stigand worked with
Earl EdwinEdwin was the elder brother of Morcar, Earl of Northumbria, son of Ælfgār, Earl of Mercia and grandson of Leofric, Earl of Mercia. He succeeded to his father's title and responsibilities on Ælfgār's death in 1062...
and
Earl MorcarMorcar was the son of Ælfgār and brother of Ēadwine. He was himself the earl of Northumbria from 1065 to 1066, when he was replaced by William the Conqueror with Copsi....
, as well as Archbishop Ealdred of York, to put Edgar the Ætheling on the throne. This plan did not come to fruition, however, due to opposition from the northern earls and some of the other bishops. Stigand submitted to William the Conqueror at
WallingfordWallingford is a small market town and civil parish in the upper Thames Valley in England. It was transferred from Berkshire to Oxfordshire in 1974.-Geography:...
in early December 1066, and assisted at his coronation on Christmas Day, 1066, although the actual coronation was performed by Ealdred. William took Stigand with him to
NormandyNormandy is a geographical region corresponding to the former Duchy of Normandy. It is situated along the English Channel coast of Northern France between Brittany and Picardy and comprises territory in northern France and the Channel Islands.Normandy is divided between French and British...
in 1067, although whether this was because William did not trust the archbishop, as the medieval chronicler
William of PoitiersWilliam of Poitiers , Norman chronicler, was born in Les Préaux, near Pont-Audemer, and belonged to an influential Norman family...
alleges, is not certain. Stigand was present at the coronation of William's queen,
MatildaMaud Le-Vieux crowned Matilda of Flanders was Queen consort of the Kingdom of England and the wife of William I the Conqueror....
in 1068, although once more the ceremony was actually performed by Ealdred.
Deposition and death
After the first rebellions broke out in late 1067 William adopted a policy of conciliation towards the church. He gave Stigand a place at court, as well as giving administrative positions to Ealdred of York and
ÆthelwigÆthelwig was an Abbot of Evesham in and around the time of the Norman Conquest of England.He was probably born about 1010 to 1015, and inherited a large amount of land from his family. He served as an administrator of the estates of Ealdred, the Bishop of Worcester, as well as those of Evesham...
, abbot of
EveshamEvesham Abbey was founded by Saint Egwin at Evesham in England around 701 A.D. following a vision of the Virgin Mary by Eof.According to the monastic history, Evesham came through the Norman Conquest unusually well, because of a quick approach by Abbot Æthelwig to William the Conqueror.Only one...
. Archbishop Stigand appears on a number of royal charters in 1069, along with both Norman and English leaders. He even consecrated
Remigius de FécampRemigius de Fécamp was a Benedictine monk who was a supporter of William the Conqueror.-Early life:Remigius held the office of almoner at Fécamp Abbey. He was related to William in some unknown manner...
as
Bishop of DorcesterThe Bishop of Lincoln heads the Diocese of Lincoln in the Province of Canterbury. The bishops were in communion with the See of Rome until the English Reformation of the 1530s....
in 1067. Once the danger of rebellion was past, however, William had no further need of Stigand. At a council held at
WinchesterWinchester is the county town of Hampshire, in South East England. It lies at the heart of the wider City of Winchester, a local government district, and is located at the western end of the South Downs, along the course of the River Itchen...
at Easter 1070, the bishops met with papal legates from
Alexander IIAlexander II , born Anselmo da Baggio, was Pope from 1061 to 1073.He was born in Milan. As bishop of Lucca he had been an energetic coadjutor with Hildebrand in endeavouring to suppress simony, and to enforce the celibacy of the clergy...
. On 11 April 1070 Stigand was deposed by the papal legate, Ermenfrid, bishop of Sion in the Alps, and was imprisoned at Winchester. His brother Æthelmær, bishop of Elmham, was also deposed at the same council. Shortly afterwards
AethelricÆthelric was the second to last medieval Bishop of Selsey in England before the see was moved to Chichester. Consecrated a bishop in 1058, he was deposed in 1070 for unknown reasons and then imprisoned by King William I of England...
bishop of SelseyThe Bishop of Chichester is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Chichester in the Province of Canterbury. The diocese covers the Counties of East and West Sussex. The see is in the City of Chichester where the seat is located at the Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity...
,
EthelwinÆthelwine was the last Anglo-Saxon bishop of Durham , the last who was not also a secular ruler, and the only English bishop at the time of the Norman Conquest who did not remain loyal to King William the Conqueror.-Life:He was consecrated bishop in 1056...
bishop of DurhamThe Bishop of Durham is the Anglican bishop responsible for the diocese of Durham in the province of York. The Diocese is one of the oldest in the country and its bishop is a member of the House of Lords...
and
LeofwinLeofwin was a medieval Bishop of Lichfield.Appointed to the see by King Edward the Confessor of England, he was a monk before becoming a bishop. For a time, he was abbot of the abbey of Coventry as well as bishop, but he was no longer abbot at the time of the Norman Conquest of England...
e
bishop of LichfieldThe Bishop of Lichfield is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Lichfield in the Province of Canterbury.The diocese covers 4,516 km² of the counties of Staffordshire, Shropshire, Warwickshire and West Midlands. The bishop's seat is located in the Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin...
, who was married, were deposed at a council held at Windsor. There were three reasons given for Stigand's deposition: that he held the bishopric of Winchester in plurality with Canterbury; that he not only occupied Canterbury after Robert of Jumièges fled but also seized Robert's pallium which was left behind; and that he received his own pallium from Benedict X, an anti-pope. Some accounts state that Stigand did appear at the council which deposed him, but nothing is recorded of any defence that he attempted. The charges against his brother are nowhere stated, leading to a belief that the depositions were mainly political. That spring he had deposited his personal wealth at Ely Abbey for safekeeping, but King William confiscated it after his deposition, along with his estates. King William appointed
LanfrancLanfranc was Archbishop of Canterbury, and a Lombard by extraction.-Early life:He was born in the early years of the eleventh century at Pavia, where later tradition held that his father, Hanbald, held a rank broadly equivalent to magistrate...
, a native of Italy and a scholar and abbot in Normandy, as the new archbishop.
King William appears to have left the initiative for Stigand's deposition to the papacy, and did nothing to hinder Stigand's authority until the papal legates arrived in England to depose the archbishop and reform the English Church. Besides witnessing charters and consecrating Remigius, Stigand appears to have been a member of the royal council, and able to move freely about the country. But after the arrival of the legates, William did nothing to protect Stigand from deposition, and the archbishop later accused the king of acting with bad faith. Stigand may even have been surprised that the legates wished him deposed. It was probably the death of Ealdred in 1069 that moved the pope to send the legates, as that left only one archbishop in England; and he was not considered legitimate and unable to consecrate bishops. The historian George Garnett draws the parallel between the treatment of King Harold in Domesday Book, where he is essentially ignored as king, and Stigand's treatment after his deposition, where his time as archbishop is as much as possible treated as not occurring.
Stigand died in 1072 while still imprisoned, and his death was commemorated on 21 February or 22 February. Sometime between his deposition and his death the widow of King Edward and sister of King Harold,
Edith of WessexEdith of Wessex, , married King Edward the Confessor of England in 1045. The marriage produced no children. Later ecclesiastical writers claimed that this was either because Edward took a vow of celibacy, or because he refused to consummate the marriage because of his antipathy to Edith's family,...
, visited him in his imprisonment and allegedly told him to take better care of himself. He was buried in the Old Minster at Westminster.
At King Edward's death, only the royal estates and the estates of Harold were larger and wealthier than those held by Stigand. Medieval writers condemned him for his greed and for his pluralism.
Hugh the ChanterHugh Sottovagina , often referred to as Hugh the Chanter or Hugh the Chantor, was a historian for York Minster during the 12th century and was probably an archdeacon during the time of his writing. He was author of the Latin text known as the History of the Church of York.-References:* Oxford...
, a medieval chronicler, claimed that the confiscated wealth of Stigand helped keep King William on the throne. A recent study of his wealth and how it was earned, shows that while he did engage in some exploitative methods to gain some of his wealth, other lands were gained through inheritance or through royal favour. The same study shows little evidence that he despoiled his episcopal estates, although the record towards monastic houses is more suspect. There is no complaint in contemporary records about his private life, and the accusations that he committed simony and was illiterate only date from the 1100s.
Although monastic chroniclers after the Norman Conquest accused him of crimes such as perjury and homicide, they do not provide any evidence of those crimes. Modern historians views tend to see him as either a wily politician and indifferent bishop, or to see him purely in terms of his ecclesiastical failings. The historian
Frank StentonSir Frank Merry Stenton was a noted 20th century historian of Anglo-Saxon England. He was the author of Anglo-Saxon England, a volume of the Oxford History of England, first published in 1943 and widely considered a classic history of the period...
felt that his "whole career shows that he was essentially a politician". Concurring with this, the historian Nick Higham said that "Stigand was a seasoned politician whose career had been built on an accurate reading of the balance of power." Another historian, Eric John, said that "Stigand had a fair claim to be the worst bishop of Christendom". However, the historian Frank Barlow felt that "he was a man of cultured tastes, a patron of the arts who was generous to the monasteries which he held".
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