Outer automorphism group
Encyclopedia
In mathematics
, the outer automorphism group of a group
G
is the quotient
Aut(G) / Inn(G), where Aut(G) is the automorphism group of G and Inn(G) is the subgroup consisting of inner automorphism
s. The outer automorphism group is usually denoted Out(G). If Out(G) is trivial and G has a trivial center, then G is said to be complete
.
An automorphism of a group which is not inner is called an outer automorphism. Note that the elements of Out(G) are cosets of automorphisms of G, and not themselves automorphisms; this is an instance of the fact that quotients of groups are not in general subgroups. Elements of Out(G) are cosets of Inn(G) in Aut(G).
For example, for the alternating group An, the outer automorphism group is usually the group of order 2, with exceptions noted below. Considering An as a subgroup of the symmetric group
Sn conjugation by any odd permutation is an outer automorphism of An or more precisely "represents the class of the (non-trivial) outer automorphism of An", but the outer automorphism does not correspond to conjugation by any particular odd element, and all conjugations by odd elements are equivalent up to conjugation by an even element.
However, for an abelian group A, the inner automorphism group is trivial and thus the automorphism group and outer automorphism group are naturally identified, and outer automorphisms do act on A.
is an extension of a group of "diagonal automorphisms" (cyclic except for Dn(q) when it has order 4), a group of "field automorphisms" (always cyclic), and
a group of "graph automorphisms" (of order 1 or 2 except for D4(q) when it is the symmetric group on 3 points). These extensions are semidirect product
s except that for the Suzuki-Ree groups the graph automorphism squares to a generator of the field automorphisms.
over an algebraically closed field
. Then any two Borel subgroup
s are conjugate by an inner automorphism, so to study outer automorphisms it suffices to consider automorphisms that fix a given Borel subgroup. Associated to the Borel subgroup is a set of simple roots, and the outer automorphism may permute them, while preserving the structure of the associated Dynkin diagram. In this way one may identify the automorphism group of the Dynkin diagram of G with a subgroup of Out(G).
D4 has a very symmetric Dynkin diagram, which yields a large outer automorphism group of Spin(8), namely Out(Spin(8)) = S3; this is called triality
.
, the automorphism group 
is a semidirect product
of
and 
, i.e., the short exact sequence
splits. In the complex simple case, this is a classical result, whereas for real simple Lie algebras, this fact has been proven as recently as 2010.
asserts that Out(G) is always a solvable group
when G is a finite simple group
. This result is now known to be true as a corollary of the classification of finite simple groups
, although no simpler proof is known.
to the center in the following sense: conjugation by an element of G is an automorphism, yielding a map
The kernel
of the conjugation map is the center, while the cokernel
is the outer automorphism group (and the image is the inner automorphism
group). This can be summarized by the short exact sequence:
es, and accordingly on the character table
. See details at character table: outer automorphisms.
of surface
s because there is a connection provided by the Dehn–Nielsen theorem: the extended mapping class group
of the surface is the Out of its fundamental group
.
the term outermorphism is sometimes used for "outer automorphism",
and a particular geometry
on which
acts is called outer space.
(contains a lot of information on various classes of finite groups (in particular sporadic simple groups), including the order of Out(G) for each group listed.
Mathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...
, the outer automorphism group of a group
Group (mathematics)
In mathematics, a group is an algebraic structure consisting of a set together with an operation that combines any two of its elements to form a third element. To qualify as a group, the set and the operation must satisfy a few conditions called group axioms, namely closure, associativity, identity...
G
is the quotient
Quotient group
In mathematics, specifically group theory, a quotient group is a group obtained by identifying together elements of a larger group using an equivalence relation...
Aut(G) / Inn(G), where Aut(G) is the automorphism group of G and Inn(G) is the subgroup consisting of inner automorphism
Inner automorphism
In abstract algebra an inner automorphism is a functionwhich, informally, involves a certain operation being applied, then another one performed, and then the initial operation being reversed...
s. The outer automorphism group is usually denoted Out(G). If Out(G) is trivial and G has a trivial center, then G is said to be complete
Complete group
In mathematics, a group G is said to be complete if every automorphism of G is inner, and the group is a centerless group; that is, it has a trivial outer automorphism group and trivial center....
.
An automorphism of a group which is not inner is called an outer automorphism. Note that the elements of Out(G) are cosets of automorphisms of G, and not themselves automorphisms; this is an instance of the fact that quotients of groups are not in general subgroups. Elements of Out(G) are cosets of Inn(G) in Aut(G).
For example, for the alternating group An, the outer automorphism group is usually the group of order 2, with exceptions noted below. Considering An as a subgroup of the symmetric group
Symmetric group
In mathematics, the symmetric group Sn on a finite set of n symbols is the group whose elements are all the permutations of the n symbols, and whose group operation is the composition of such permutations, which are treated as bijective functions from the set of symbols to itself...
Sn conjugation by any odd permutation is an outer automorphism of An or more precisely "represents the class of the (non-trivial) outer automorphism of An", but the outer automorphism does not correspond to conjugation by any particular odd element, and all conjugations by odd elements are equivalent up to conjugation by an even element.
However, for an abelian group A, the inner automorphism group is trivial and thus the automorphism group and outer automorphism group are naturally identified, and outer automorphisms do act on A.
Out(G) for some finite groups
For the outer automorphism groups of all finite simple groups see the list of finite simple groups. Sporadic simple groups and alternating groups (other than the alternating group A6; see below) all have outer automorphism groups of order 1 or 2. The outer automorphism group of a finite simple group of Lie typeGroup of Lie type
In mathematics, a group of Lie type G is a group of rational points of a reductive linear algebraic group G with values in the field k. Finite groups of Lie type form the bulk of nonabelian finite simple groups...
is an extension of a group of "diagonal automorphisms" (cyclic except for Dn(q) when it has order 4), a group of "field automorphisms" (always cyclic), and
a group of "graph automorphisms" (of order 1 or 2 except for D4(q) when it is the symmetric group on 3 points). These extensions are semidirect product
Semidirect product
In mathematics, specifically in the area of abstract algebra known as group theory, a semidirect product is a particular way in which a group can be put together from two subgroups, one of which is a normal subgroup. A semidirect product is a generalization of a direct product...
s except that for the Suzuki-Ree groups the graph automorphism squares to a generator of the field automorphisms.
| Group | Parameter | Out(G) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Z Integer The integers are formed by the natural numbers together with the negatives of the non-zero natural numbers .They are known as Positive and Negative Integers respectively... |
infinite cyclic | Z2 | 2 |
| Zn Cyclic group In group theory, a cyclic group is a group that can be generated by a single element, in the sense that the group has an element g such that, when written multiplicatively, every element of the group is a power of g .-Definition:A group G is called cyclic if there exists an element g... |
n > 2 | Zn× Multiplicative group of integers modulo n In modular arithmetic the set of congruence classes relatively prime to the modulus n form a group under multiplication called the multiplicative group of integers modulo n. It is also called the group of primitive residue classes modulo n. In the theory of rings, a branch of abstract algebra, it... |
φ(n) Euler's totient function In number theory, the totient \varphi of a positive integer n is defined to be the number of positive integers less than or equal to n that are coprime to n In number theory, the totient \varphi(n) of a positive integer n is defined to be the number of positive integers less than or equal to n that... =  elements |
| Zpn Cyclic group In group theory, a cyclic group is a group that can be generated by a single element, in the sense that the group has an element g such that, when written multiplicatively, every element of the group is a power of g .-Definition:A group G is called cyclic if there exists an element g... |
p prime, n > 1 | GLn(p) General linear group In mathematics, the general linear group of degree n is the set of n×n invertible matrices, together with the operation of ordinary matrix multiplication. This forms a group, because the product of two invertible matrices is again invertible, and the inverse of an invertible matrix is invertible... |
(pn − 1)(pn − p )(pn − p2) ... (pn − pn−1) elements |
| Sn Symmetric group In mathematics, the symmetric group Sn on a finite set of n symbols is the group whose elements are all the permutations of the n symbols, and whose group operation is the composition of such permutations, which are treated as bijective functions from the set of symbols to itself... |
n not equal to 6 | trivial Trivial group In mathematics, a trivial group is a group consisting of a single element. All such groups are isomorphic so one often speaks of the trivial group. The single element of the trivial group is the identity element so it usually denoted as such, 0, 1 or e depending on the context... |
1 |
| S6 Symmetric group In mathematics, the symmetric group Sn on a finite set of n symbols is the group whose elements are all the permutations of the n symbols, and whose group operation is the composition of such permutations, which are treated as bijective functions from the set of symbols to itself... |
Z2 (see below) | 2 | |
| An | n not equal to 6 | Z2 | 2 |
| A6 | Z2 × Z2(see below) | 4 | |
| PSL2(p) | p > 3 prime | Z2 | 2 |
| PSL2(2n) | n > 1 | Zn | n |
| PSL3(4) = M21 Mathieu group In the mathematical field of group theory, the Mathieu groups, named after the French mathematician Émile Léonard Mathieu, are five finite simple groups he discovered and reported in papers in 1861 and 1873; these were the first sporadic simple groups discovered... |
Dih6 Dihedral group In mathematics, a dihedral group is the group of symmetries of a regular polygon, including both rotations and reflections. Dihedral groups are among the simplest examples of finite groups, and they play an important role in group theory, geometry, and chemistry.See also: Dihedral symmetry in three... |
12 | |
| Mn Mathieu group In the mathematical field of group theory, the Mathieu groups, named after the French mathematician Émile Léonard Mathieu, are five finite simple groups he discovered and reported in papers in 1861 and 1873; these were the first sporadic simple groups discovered... |
n = 11, 23, 24 | trivial Trivial group In mathematics, a trivial group is a group consisting of a single element. All such groups are isomorphic so one often speaks of the trivial group. The single element of the trivial group is the identity element so it usually denoted as such, 0, 1 or e depending on the context... |
1 |
| Mn Mathieu group In the mathematical field of group theory, the Mathieu groups, named after the French mathematician Émile Léonard Mathieu, are five finite simple groups he discovered and reported in papers in 1861 and 1873; these were the first sporadic simple groups discovered... |
n = 12, 22 | Z2 | 2 |
| Con Conway group In mathematics, the Conway groups Co1, Co2, and Co3 are three sporadic groups discovered by John Horton Conway.The largest of the Conway groups, Co1, of order... |
n = 1, 2, 3 | trivial Trivial group In mathematics, a trivial group is a group consisting of a single element. All such groups are isomorphic so one often speaks of the trivial group. The single element of the trivial group is the identity element so it usually denoted as such, 0, 1 or e depending on the context... |
1 |
The outer automorphisms of the symmetric and alternating groups
The outer automorphism group of a finite simple group in some infinite family of finite simple groups can almost always be given by a uniform formula that works for all elements of the family. There is just one exception to this: the alternating group A6 has outer automorphism group of order 4, rather than 2 as do the other simple alternating groups (given by conjugation by an odd permutation). Equivalently the symmetric group S6 is the only symmetric group with a non-trivial outer automorphism group.Outer automorphism groups of complex Lie groups
Let G now be a connected reductive groupReductive group
In mathematics, a reductive group is an algebraic group G over an algebraically closed field such that the unipotent radical of G is trivial . Any semisimple algebraic group is reductive, as is any algebraic torus and any general linear group...
over an algebraically closed field
Algebraically closed field
In mathematics, a field F is said to be algebraically closed if every polynomial with one variable of degree at least 1, with coefficients in F, has a root in F.-Examples:...
. Then any two Borel subgroup
Borel subgroup
In the theory of algebraic groups, a Borel subgroup of an algebraic group G is a maximal Zariski closed and connected solvable algebraic subgroup.For example, in the group GLn ,...
s are conjugate by an inner automorphism, so to study outer automorphisms it suffices to consider automorphisms that fix a given Borel subgroup. Associated to the Borel subgroup is a set of simple roots, and the outer automorphism may permute them, while preserving the structure of the associated Dynkin diagram. In this way one may identify the automorphism group of the Dynkin diagram of G with a subgroup of Out(G).
D4 has a very symmetric Dynkin diagram, which yields a large outer automorphism group of Spin(8), namely Out(Spin(8)) = S3; this is called triality
Triality
In mathematics, triality is a relationship between three vector spaces, analogous to the duality relation between dual vector spaces. Most commonly, it describes those special features of the Dynkin diagram D4 and the associated Lie group Spin, the double cover of 8-dimensional rotation group SO,...
.
Outer automorphism groups of complex and real simple Lie algebras
The preceding interpretation of outer automorphisms as symmetries of a Dynkin diagram follows from the general fact, that for a complex or real simple Lie algebra, the automorphism group is a semidirect productSemidirect product
In mathematics, specifically in the area of abstract algebra known as group theory, a semidirect product is a particular way in which a group can be put together from two subgroups, one of which is a normal subgroup. A semidirect product is a generalization of a direct product...
of
and , i.e., the short exact sequenceExact sequence
An exact sequence is a concept in mathematics, especially in homological algebra and other applications of abelian category theory, as well as in differential geometry and group theory...
splits. In the complex simple case, this is a classical result, whereas for real simple Lie algebras, this fact has been proven as recently as 2010.
Structure
The Schreier conjectureSchreier conjecture
In finite group theory, the Schreier conjecture asserts that the group of outer automorphisms of every finite simple group is solvable. It was proposed by Otto Schreier in 1926, and is now known to be true as a result of the classification of finite simple groups, but no simpler proof is known....
asserts that Out(G) is always a solvable group
Solvable group
In mathematics, more specifically in the field of group theory, a solvable group is a group that can be constructed from abelian groups using extensions...
when G is a finite simple group
Simple group
In mathematics, a simple group is a nontrivial group whose only normal subgroups are the trivial group and the group itself. A group that is not simple can be broken into two smaller groups, a normal subgroup and the quotient group, and the process can be repeated...
. This result is now known to be true as a corollary of the classification of finite simple groups
Classification of finite simple groups
In mathematics, the classification of the finite simple groups is a theorem stating that every finite simple group belongs to one of four categories described below. These groups can be seen as the basic building blocks of all finite groups, in much the same way as the prime numbers are the basic...
, although no simpler proof is known.
Dual to center
The outer automorphism group is dualDuality (mathematics)
In mathematics, a duality, generally speaking, translates concepts, theorems or mathematical structures into other concepts, theorems or structures, in a one-to-one fashion, often by means of an involution operation: if the dual of A is B, then the dual of B is A. As involutions sometimes have...
to the center in the following sense: conjugation by an element of G is an automorphism, yielding a map
The kernelKernel (algebra)
In the various branches of mathematics that fall under the heading of abstract algebra, the kernel of a homomorphism measures the degree to which the homomorphism fails to be injective. An important special case is the kernel of a matrix, also called the null space.The definition of kernel takes...
of the conjugation map is the center, while the cokernel
Cokernel
In mathematics, the cokernel of a linear mapping of vector spaces f : X → Y is the quotient space Y/im of the codomain of f by the image of f....
is the outer automorphism group (and the image is the inner automorphism
Inner automorphism
In abstract algebra an inner automorphism is a functionwhich, informally, involves a certain operation being applied, then another one performed, and then the initial operation being reversed...
group). This can be summarized by the short exact sequence:
Applications
The outer automorphism group of a group acts on conjugacy classConjugacy class
In mathematics, especially group theory, the elements of any group may be partitioned into conjugacy classes; members of the same conjugacy class share many properties, and study of conjugacy classes of non-abelian groups reveals many important features of their structure...
es, and accordingly on the character table
Character table
In group theory, a character table is a two-dimensional table whose rows correspond to irreducible group representations, and whose columns correspond to classes of group elements...
. See details at character table: outer automorphisms.
Topology of surfaces
The outer automorphism group is important in the topologyTopology
Topology is a major area of mathematics concerned with properties that are preserved under continuous deformations of objects, such as deformations that involve stretching, but no tearing or gluing...
of surface
Surface
In mathematics, specifically in topology, a surface is a two-dimensional topological manifold. The most familiar examples are those that arise as the boundaries of solid objects in ordinary three-dimensional Euclidean space R3 — for example, the surface of a ball...
s because there is a connection provided by the Dehn–Nielsen theorem: the extended mapping class group
Mapping class group
In mathematics, in the sub-field of geometric topology, the mapping class groupis an important algebraic invariant of a topological space. Briefly, the mapping class group is a discrete group of 'symmetries' of the space.-Motivation:...
of the surface is the Out of its fundamental group
Fundamental group
In mathematics, more specifically algebraic topology, the fundamental group is a group associated to any given pointed topological space that provides a way of determining when two paths, starting and ending at a fixed base point, can be continuously deformed into each other...
.
Puns
The term "outer automorphism" lends itself to puns:the term outermorphism is sometimes used for "outer automorphism",
and a particular geometry
Geometric group action
In mathematics, specifically geometric group theory, a geometric group action is a certain type of action of a discrete group on a metric space.-Definition:In geometric group theory, a geometry is any proper, geodesic metric space...
on which
acts is called outer space.External links
(contains a lot of information on various classes of finite groups (in particular sporadic simple groups), including the order of Out(G) for each group listed.