Mycena inclinata
Encyclopedia
Mycena inclinata, commonly known as the clustered bonnet, is a species of mushroom
in the Mycenaceae
family. The doubtfully edible mushroom has a reddish-brown bell-shaped cap
up to 4.5 cm (1.8 in) in diameter. The thin stem
is up to 9 cm (3.5 in) tall, whitish to yellow-brown at the top but progressively becoming reddish-brown towards the base in maturity, where they are covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem. The gills are pale brown to pinkish, and the spore print
is white. It is a widespread saprobic fungus, and has been found in Europe, North Africa, Asia, Australasia, and North America, where it grows in small groups or tufts on fallen logs and stumps, especially of oak
. British mycologist E.J.H. Corner has described two varieties of the mushroom from Borneo
. Lookalike species with which M. inclinata may be confused include M. galericulata
and M. maculata
.
in 1838, it was assigned its current name in 1872 by Lucien Quélet
. Mycena galericulata var. calopus (named by Karsten in 1879), and its basionym
Agaricus galericulatus var. calopus (named by Fries in 1873), are synonyms
.
In a molecular study of the large subunit ribosomal DNA
sequences of mycorrhizal fungi of the orchid Gastrodia confusa, M. inclinata was found to be closely related to M. aurantiomarginata
, M. crocata
, and M. leaiana.
The specific epithet inclinata means "bent in". The mushroom is commonly
known as the "clustered bonnet".
is light reddish-brown, with a diameter typically ranging from 1 to 4.5 cm (0.393700787401575 to 1.8 in). Initially conic to bell-shaped to convex, it flattens during maturity, developing visible surface grooves corresponding to the gills underneath the cap. The margin of the cap has minute but distinct scallops. The surface is moist and smooth, and hygrophanous
. The cap frequently develops splits in the margin, or cracks in the disc (the central part of the cap). The flesh of the cap is thick in the center but thin elsewhere, grayish to whitish, fragile, and with a slightly mealy odor and taste. The gills have a decurrent attachment to the stem (that is, running down the length of the stem) and are a pale brownish color with tinges of red. They are broad (between 3 and 6 mm), and have a close to subdistant spacing, with about 26–35 gills reaching the stem. The fragile stem
is 3 to 9 cm (1.2 to 3.5 in) long by 0.15 to 0.4 cm (0.0590551181102362 to 0.15748031496063 in) thick and yellow to yellow-brown, becoming reddish-brown to orange-brown in the bottom half in maturity. The lower portion of young stems is covered with white flecks. Roughly equal in thickness at the top and bottom, the base of the stem is covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem. The edibility
of the mushroom is "doubtful" and consumption "best avoided".
s are 7–9 by 5–6.5 μm
, broadly ellipsoid, smooth, and strongly amyloid
(it turns black when treated with Melzer's reagent
). The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored. The pleurocystidia (cystidia on the gill face) are not differentiated. The cheilocystidia (cystidia on the gill edge) are embedded in the gill edge and very inconspicuous, club-shaped, 26–36 by 5–10 μm, and have tips that are covered with contorted projections that can be slender or thick. The flesh
of the gills is homogeneous, and pale yellowish to dirty brown when stained in iodine. The flesh of the cap has a distinct pellicle, a well-differentiated hypoderm (a region of tissue immediately under the pellicle), and a filamentous tramal body (gill tissue); it is pale yellowish to sordid brownish in iodine stain.
mushrooms of Malesia
, a biogeographical region straddling the boundary of the Indomalaya and Australasia ecozone
s. The variety kinabaluensis (named after its type locality, Kinabalu
) has a cap margin that is not scalloped, little or no odor, and cheilocystidia with shorter processes. It was found growing on the dead wood of Lithocarpus havilandii, a stone oak
tree in the beech
family. Variety subglobospora, found in Sabah
, has spores that are almost spherical.
bears some resemblance to M. inclinata, but is only associated with decaying hardwood logs and stumps, and is found in eastern North America, and sometimes on oak
on the West Coast
. In age, it develops reddish spots on the gills that are not seen in M. inclinata. M. inclinata is often confused with the edible
M. galericulata
, a common species that is variable in cap color, size and shape. M. galericulata typically has a bluntly conical cap that is dull gray-brown, and white to grayish veins that have numerous cross-veins.
such as leaves, twigs, bark and branches. It accomplishes this by producing enzyme
s capable of breaking down the three major biochemical components of plant cell wall
s found in litter: cellulose
, hemicellulose
and lignin
.
The fruit bodies of Mycena inclinata grow in dense groups or clusters on decaying hardwood logs and stumps (especially oak
) during the spring and autumn. The fungus forms a white, woolly mycelium on the surface of decomposing oak leaves. Occasionally, it can be found growing on a living tree. In eastern North America, it is abundant in the area bounded by Nova Scotia
, Ontario
, Manitoba
, Missouri
, North Carolina
, and New York
. It has been found in Oregon
, but the species appears to be generally rare along the Pacific Coast
. The range of the fungus also includes Europe, the Canary Islands
, North Africa, East Siberia, Japan, Malesia, Turkey, and New Zealand.
concentrations of various mushrooms species found in Ordu
(Turkey), M. inclinata was found to have comparatively high levels of iron
(628 mg per kg
) and nickel
(21.6 mg/kg), measured on a dry weight
basis. Laboratory studies have shown that the fungus is resistant to aluminum. The fungus has been investigated for its ability to decolorize synthetic dyes that are used in the textile, plastics, biomedical and foodstuff industries. The dyes are not readily biodegradable, and when discharged into the environment are persistent
and many are toxic.
Mushroom
A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi that...
in the Mycenaceae
Mycenaceae
The Mycenaceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. According to the Dictionary of the Fungi , the family contains 10 genera and 705 species. This is one of several families that were separated from the Tricholomataceae as a result of phylogenetic analyses...
family. The doubtfully edible mushroom has a reddish-brown bell-shaped cap
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
up to 4.5 cm (1.8 in) in diameter. The thin stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
is up to 9 cm (3.5 in) tall, whitish to yellow-brown at the top but progressively becoming reddish-brown towards the base in maturity, where they are covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem. The gills are pale brown to pinkish, and the spore print
Spore print
thumb|300px|right|Making a spore print of the mushroom Volvariella volvacea shown in composite: mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print...
is white. It is a widespread saprobic fungus, and has been found in Europe, North Africa, Asia, Australasia, and North America, where it grows in small groups or tufts on fallen logs and stumps, especially of oak
Oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
. British mycologist E.J.H. Corner has described two varieties of the mushroom from Borneo
Borneo
Borneo is the third largest island in the world and is located north of Java Island, Indonesia, at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia....
. Lookalike species with which M. inclinata may be confused include M. galericulata
Mycena galericulata
Mycena galericulata is a mushroom species commonly known as the common bonnet, the toque mycena, or the rosy-gill fairy helmet. The type species of the genus Mycena was first described scientifically in 1772, but was not considered a Mycena until 1821...
and M. maculata
Mycena maculata
Mycena maculata, commonly known as the reddish-spotted Mycena, is a species of fungus in the Mycenaceae family. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, have conic to bell-shaped to convex caps that are initially dark brown but fade to brownish-gray when young, reaching diameters of up to...
.
Taxonomy, phylogeny, and naming
First described as Agaricus inclinatus by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus FriesElias Magnus Fries
-External links:*, Authors of fungal names, Mushroom, the Journal of Wild Mushrooming.*...
in 1838, it was assigned its current name in 1872 by Lucien Quélet
Lucien Quélet
thumb|Lucien QuéletLucien Quélet was a French mycologist and naturalist who discovered several species and was the founder of the Société mycologique de France, a society devoted to mycological studies....
. Mycena galericulata var. calopus (named by Karsten in 1879), and its basionym
Basionym
Basionym is a term used in botany, regulated by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature...
Agaricus galericulatus var. calopus (named by Fries in 1873), are synonyms
Synonym (taxonomy)
In scientific nomenclature, a synonym is a scientific name that is or was used for a taxon of organisms that also goes by a different scientific name. For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies...
.
In a molecular study of the large subunit ribosomal DNA
Ribosomal DNA
Ribosomal DNA codes for ribosomal RNA. The ribosome is an intracellular macromolecule that produces proteins or polypeptide chains. The ribosome itself consists of a composite of proteins and RNA. As shown in the figure, rDNA consists of a tandem repeat of a unit segment, an operon, composed of...
sequences of mycorrhizal fungi of the orchid Gastrodia confusa, M. inclinata was found to be closely related to M. aurantiomarginata
Mycena aurantiomarginata
Mycena aurantiomarginata, commonly known as the golden-edge bonnet, is a species of fungus in the Mycenaceae family. It has a widespread distribution, common in Europe, and North America, and also having been collected in North Africa, Asia, and Central America. The fungus is saprobic, and produces...
, M. crocata
Mycena crocata
Mycena crocata is a species of mushroom in the Mycenaceae family. The common name Saffrondrop Bonnet refers to the red or orange latex that it exudes if the stipe is broken. Its habitat is woody debris and leaf litter in deciduous woodland, especially Beech....
, and M. leaiana.
The specific epithet inclinata means "bent in". The mushroom is commonly
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
known as the "clustered bonnet".
Description
The capPileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
is light reddish-brown, with a diameter typically ranging from 1 to 4.5 cm (0.393700787401575 to 1.8 in). Initially conic to bell-shaped to convex, it flattens during maturity, developing visible surface grooves corresponding to the gills underneath the cap. The margin of the cap has minute but distinct scallops. The surface is moist and smooth, and hygrophanous
Hygrophanous
The adjective hygrophanous refers to the color change of mushroom tissue as it loses or absorbs water, which causes the pileipellis to become more transparent when wet and opaque when dry....
. The cap frequently develops splits in the margin, or cracks in the disc (the central part of the cap). The flesh of the cap is thick in the center but thin elsewhere, grayish to whitish, fragile, and with a slightly mealy odor and taste. The gills have a decurrent attachment to the stem (that is, running down the length of the stem) and are a pale brownish color with tinges of red. They are broad (between 3 and 6 mm), and have a close to subdistant spacing, with about 26–35 gills reaching the stem. The fragile stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
is 3 to 9 cm (1.2 to 3.5 in) long by 0.15 to 0.4 cm (0.0590551181102362 to 0.15748031496063 in) thick and yellow to yellow-brown, becoming reddish-brown to orange-brown in the bottom half in maturity. The lower portion of young stems is covered with white flecks. Roughly equal in thickness at the top and bottom, the base of the stem is covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem. The edibility
Edible mushroom
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruiting bodies of several species of fungi. Mushrooms belong to the macrofungi, because their fruiting structures are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. They can appear either below ground or above ground where they may be picked by hand...
of the mushroom is "doubtful" and consumption "best avoided".
Microscopic characteristics
The sporeSpore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s are 7–9 by 5–6.5 μm
Micrometre
A micrometer , is by definition 1×10-6 of a meter .In plain English, it means one-millionth of a meter . Its unit symbol in the International System of Units is μm...
, broadly ellipsoid, smooth, and strongly amyloid
Amyloid (mycology)
In mycology the term amyloid refers to a crude chemical test using iodine in either Melzer's reagent or Lugol's solution, to produce a black to blue-black positive reaction. It is called amyloid because starch gives a similar reaction, and that reaction for starch is also called an amyloid reaction...
(it turns black when treated with Melzer's reagent
Melzer's Reagent
Melzer's reagent is a chemical reagent used by mycologists to assist with the identification of fungi.-Composition:...
). The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored. The pleurocystidia (cystidia on the gill face) are not differentiated. The cheilocystidia (cystidia on the gill edge) are embedded in the gill edge and very inconspicuous, club-shaped, 26–36 by 5–10 μm, and have tips that are covered with contorted projections that can be slender or thick. The flesh
Trama (mycology)
In mycology trama is a term for the inner, fleshy portion of a mushroom's basidiocarp, or fruit body. It is distinct from the outer layer of tissue, known as the pileipellis or cuticle, and from the spore-bearing tissue layer known as the hymenium....
of the gills is homogeneous, and pale yellowish to dirty brown when stained in iodine. The flesh of the cap has a distinct pellicle, a well-differentiated hypoderm (a region of tissue immediately under the pellicle), and a filamentous tramal body (gill tissue); it is pale yellowish to sordid brownish in iodine stain.
Varieties
E.J.H. Corner defined the varieties M. inclinata var. kinabaluensis and var. subglobospora in his 1994 publication on AgaricAgaric
An agaric is a type of fungal fruiting body characterized by the presence of a pileus that is clearly differentiated from the stipe , with lamellae on the underside of the pileus. "Agaric" can also refer to a basidiomycete species characterized by an agaric-type fruiting body...
mushrooms of Malesia
Malesia
Malesia is a biogeographical region straddling the boundaries of the Indomalaya ecozone and Australasia ecozone, and also a phytogeographical floristic region in the Paleotropical Kingdom.-Floristic province:...
, a biogeographical region straddling the boundary of the Indomalaya and Australasia ecozone
Australasia ecozone
The Australasian zone is an ecological region that is coincident, but not synonymous , with the geographic region of Australasia...
s. The variety kinabaluensis (named after its type locality, Kinabalu
Mount Kinabalu
Mount Kinabalu is a prominent mountain on the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. It is located in the East Malaysian state of Sabah and is protected as Kinabalu National Park, a World Heritage Site. Kinabalu is the tallest peak in Borneo's Crocker Range and is the tallest mountain in the Malay...
) has a cap margin that is not scalloped, little or no odor, and cheilocystidia with shorter processes. It was found growing on the dead wood of Lithocarpus havilandii, a stone oak
Stone Oak
Stone Oak is an affluent master-planned, deed restricted, multi-use development in far north central San Antonio, Texas. Stone Oak is north of Loop 1604 and west of 281. The area is known for its numerous gated-communities and well landscaped medians. For privacy, many of Stone Oak's communities...
tree in the beech
Fagaceae
The family Fagaceae, or beech family, comprises about 900 species of both evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs, which are characterized by alternate simple leaves with pinnate venation, unisexual flowers in the form of catkins, and fruit in the form of cup-like nuts. Fagaceous leaves are often...
family. Variety subglobospora, found in Sabah
Sabah
Sabah is one of 13 member states of Malaysia. It is located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. It is the second largest state in the country after Sarawak, which it borders on its southwest. It also shares a border with the province of East Kalimantan of Indonesia in the south...
, has spores that are almost spherical.
Similar species
Mycena maculataMycena maculata
Mycena maculata, commonly known as the reddish-spotted Mycena, is a species of fungus in the Mycenaceae family. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, have conic to bell-shaped to convex caps that are initially dark brown but fade to brownish-gray when young, reaching diameters of up to...
bears some resemblance to M. inclinata, but is only associated with decaying hardwood logs and stumps, and is found in eastern North America, and sometimes on oak
Oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
on the West Coast
West Coast of the United States
West Coast or Pacific Coast are terms for the westernmost coastal states of the United States. The term most often refers to the states of California, Oregon, and Washington. Although not part of the contiguous United States, Alaska and Hawaii do border the Pacific Ocean but can't be included in...
. In age, it develops reddish spots on the gills that are not seen in M. inclinata. M. inclinata is often confused with the edible
Edible mushroom
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruiting bodies of several species of fungi. Mushrooms belong to the macrofungi, because their fruiting structures are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. They can appear either below ground or above ground where they may be picked by hand...
M. galericulata
Mycena galericulata
Mycena galericulata is a mushroom species commonly known as the common bonnet, the toque mycena, or the rosy-gill fairy helmet. The type species of the genus Mycena was first described scientifically in 1772, but was not considered a Mycena until 1821...
, a common species that is variable in cap color, size and shape. M. galericulata typically has a bluntly conical cap that is dull gray-brown, and white to grayish veins that have numerous cross-veins.
Habitat and distribution
Mycena inclinata is a saprobic fungus, deriving its nutrients from decomposing organic matter found in plant litterPlant litter
Plant litter, leaf litter or tree litter is dead plant material, such as leaves, bark, needles, and twigs, that has fallen to the ground. Litter provides habitat for small animals, fungi, and plants, and the material may be used to construct nests. As litter decomposes, nutrients are released to...
such as leaves, twigs, bark and branches. It accomplishes this by producing enzyme
Enzyme
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products. Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates...
s capable of breaking down the three major biochemical components of plant cell wall
Cell wall
The cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to...
s found in litter: cellulose
Cellulose
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β linked D-glucose units....
, hemicellulose
Hemicellulose
A hemicellulose is any of several heteropolymers , such as arabinoxylans, present along with cellulose in almost all plant cell walls. While cellulose is crystalline, strong, and resistant to hydrolysis, hemicellulose has a random, amorphous structure with little strength...
and lignin
Lignin
Lignin or lignen is a complex chemical compound most commonly derived from wood, and an integral part of the secondary cell walls of plants and some algae. The term was introduced in 1819 by de Candolle and is derived from the Latin word lignum, meaning wood...
.
The fruit bodies of Mycena inclinata grow in dense groups or clusters on decaying hardwood logs and stumps (especially oak
Oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
) during the spring and autumn. The fungus forms a white, woolly mycelium on the surface of decomposing oak leaves. Occasionally, it can be found growing on a living tree. In eastern North America, it is abundant in the area bounded by Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the most populous province in Atlantic Canada. The name of the province is Latin for "New Scotland," but "Nova Scotia" is the recognized, English-language name of the province. The provincial capital is Halifax. Nova Scotia is the...
, Ontario
Ontario
Ontario is a province of Canada, located in east-central Canada. It is Canada's most populous province and second largest in total area. It is home to the nation's most populous city, Toronto, and the nation's capital, Ottawa....
, Manitoba
Manitoba
Manitoba is a Canadian prairie province with an area of . The province has over 110,000 lakes and has a largely continental climate because of its flat topography. Agriculture, mostly concentrated in the fertile southern and western parts of the province, is vital to the province's economy; other...
, Missouri
Missouri
Missouri is a US state located in the Midwestern United States, bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. With a 2010 population of 5,988,927, Missouri is the 18th most populous state in the nation and the fifth most populous in the Midwest. It...
, North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
, and New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
. It has been found in Oregon
Oregon
Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is located on the Pacific coast, with Washington to the north, California to the south, Nevada on the southeast and Idaho to the east. The Columbia and Snake rivers delineate much of Oregon's northern and eastern...
, but the species appears to be generally rare along the Pacific Coast
Pacific Coast
A country's Pacific coast is the part of its coast bordering the Pacific Ocean.-The Americas:Countries on the western side of the Americas have a Pacific coast as their western border.* Geography of Canada* Geography of Chile* Geography of Colombia...
. The range of the fungus also includes Europe, the Canary Islands
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
, North Africa, East Siberia, Japan, Malesia, Turkey, and New Zealand.
Chemistry
In a study of the trace metalTrace metal
Trace metals are metals in extremely small quantities that reside in or are present in animal and plant cells and tissue. They are a necessary part of good nutrition, although they can be toxic if ingested in excess quantities....
concentrations of various mushrooms species found in Ordu
Ordu
Ordu 'army') is a port city on the Black Sea coast of Turkey, and the capital of Ordu Province. Estimated population c. 2010: 141,341.-Etymology:...
(Turkey), M. inclinata was found to have comparatively high levels of iron
Iron
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...
(628 mg per kg
Kilogram
The kilogram or kilogramme , also known as the kilo, is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units and is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram , which is almost exactly equal to the mass of one liter of water...
) and nickel
Nickel
Nickel is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile...
(21.6 mg/kg), measured on a dry weight
Dry matter
The dry matter is a measurement of the mass of something when completely dried.The dry matter of plant and animal material would be its solids, i.e. all its constituents excluding water. The dry matter of food would include carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants...
basis. Laboratory studies have shown that the fungus is resistant to aluminum. The fungus has been investigated for its ability to decolorize synthetic dyes that are used in the textile, plastics, biomedical and foodstuff industries. The dyes are not readily biodegradable, and when discharged into the environment are persistent
Persistent organic pollutant
thumb|right|275px|State parties to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic PollutantsPersistent organic pollutants are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes...
and many are toxic.