Muqtadā al-Ṣadr or Moktada al-Sadr (born August 12, 1973) is an
IraqIraq , officially the Republic of Iraq , also known as Mesopotamia, is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.Iraq shares borders with Jordan to the west, Syria...
i theologian and political leader.
Along with Ali al-Sistani and
Ammar al-HakimSayyed Ammar al-Hakim is an Iraqi politician who leads the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq, which is currently the largest political party in the Council of Representatives....
of the Supreme Islamic Iraqi Council, Sadr is one of the most influential religious and political figures in the country not holding any official title in the Iraqi government.
Family
Muqtada al-Sadr is the fourth son of a famous Iraqi
Shi‘aShia Islam , is the second largest denomination of Islam, after Sunni Islam. The followers of Shia Islam are called Shi'as or Shi'ites....
cleric, the late Grand
AyatollahAyatollah is a high ranking title given to Usuli Twelver Shī‘ah clerics. Those who carry the title are experts in Islamic studies such as jurisprudence, ethics, and philosophy and usually teach in Islamic seminaries...
Mohammad Mohammad Sadeq al-SadrGrand Ayatollah Mohammad Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr , often referred to as Muhammad Sadiq as-Sadr which is his father's name, was a prominent, Iraqi Twelver Shi'a cleric of the rank of Grand Ayatollah. He called for government reform and the release of detained Shi'a leaders...
. He is also the son-in-law of Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Baqir As-Sadr.
Muqtada al-Sadr is of
LebaneseLebanon , officially the Republic of Lebanon
[Republic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies...]
ancestry. His great-grandfather is
Ismail as-SadrIsmail as-Sadr was a Lebanese Grand Ayatollah , a title which is used in Iran and Iraq referring to a Twelver Shi'a scholar who is a fully qualified mujtahid who asserts authority over peers and followers by virtue of sufficient study and achievement of the level of necessary competencey needed...
. Mohammed Sadeq al-Sadr, Muqtada al-Sadr's father, was a well-respected figure throughout the Shi'a Islamic world. He was murdered, along with two of his sons, allegedly by the government of
Saddam HusseinSaddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti was the President of Iraq from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003...
. Some do believe it was an inside job ordered in February 1999 from
NajafNajaf is a city in Iraq about 160 km south of Baghdad. Its estimated population in 2008 is 900,600 people. It is the capital of Najaf Governorate...
, the stronghold of the al-Sadr clan. Muqtada's
father-in-lawShahid-e-Khamis Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr was an Iraqi Twelver Shi'a cleric, a philosopher, and ideological founder of Islamic Dawa Party born in al-Kazimiya, Iraq. He is the father-in-law of Muqtada al-Sadr and cousin of both Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr and Imam Musa as-Sadr...
was executed by the Iraqi authorities in 1980. Muqtada is a cousin of the disappeared
Musa al-SadrFor the Twelver Shī‘ah Imām, see Mūsá al-KāżimSayyid Mūsá aṣ-Ṣadr , was an Iranian-born Lebanese philosopher and a prominent Shī‘ah religious leader who spent many years of his life in Lebanon as a religious and political leader.-Early life:Mūsá aṣ-Ṣadr was born in Qom,...
, the Iranian-Lebanese founder of the popular Amal Movement.
Education
As Muqtada al-Sadr lacks the religious education and degrees required by Shi'a doctrines, he does not claim the title of
mujtahid (the equivalent of a senior religious scholar) or the authority to issue
fatwaA fatwā , in the Islamic faith is a religious opinion concerning Islamic law issued by an Islamic scholar. In Sunni Islam any fatwa is non-binding, whereas in Shia Islam it could be binding, depending on the status of the scholar...
s (religious edicts). Before the assassination of his father, he was a student in the Najaf Hawza or religious seminary.
Muqtada al-Sadr refers those with religious questions to their own
MarjaMarjaʿ , also appearing as Marja Taqlid or Marja Dini , literally means "Source to Imitate/Follow" or "Religious Reference". It is the label provided to Shia authority, a Grand Ayatollah with the authority to make legal decisions within the confines of Islamic law for followers and...
(religious authority). Following his father's assassination he maintained his father's network of charities and social services.
Assassinations and violence
Some of his followers are alleged to be responsible for the
assassinationAn Assassination is the targeted killing of a public figure.Assassinations may be prompted by ideological, political, or military reasons. Additionally, assassins may be motivated by financial gain, revenge, personal public recognition, or mental illness....
on 10 April 2003 of
ImamAn imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the leader of a mosque and the community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads the prayer during Islamic gatherings. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have an Islamic question...
Abdul Majid al-KhoeiSayyid Abdul Majid al-Khoei , 16 August, 1962 – 10 April, 2003) was a Twelver Shia cleric and the son of Ayatollah Al-Udhma Sayyid Abul Qasim al-Khoei who was born in the holy city of Najaf....
. Judge Raed Juhi, who conducted the investigation after the incident, issued arrest warrants against Sadr and two dozen others, but Sadr's warrant was placed under seal by the
Coalition Provisional AuthorityThe Coalition Provisional Authority was established as a transitional government following the invasion of Iraq by the United States, United Kingdom and the other members of the Multinational force in Iraq which was formed to oust the government of Saddam Hussein in 2003...
.
The allegation is based on the fact that the perpetrators used ropes to pull Abdul Majid al-Khoei and his aide's bodies across some alleys near the Shrine of Imam Ali in Najaf, and shouted slogans claiming vengeance for the assassination of al-Sadr.
There was a dispute over the keys to the
Imam Ali MosqueThe Imām ‘Alī Holy Shrine , also known as Masjid Ali or the Mosque of ‘Alī, is a mosque located in Najaf, Iraq. ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib, the cousin of Muhammad, the fourth caliph is buried here...
in Najaf. The mosque contains the tomb of Ali, the son-in-law of
MuhammadMuhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh , is the founder of the religion of Islam [ إِسْلامْ ] and is regarded by Muslims as a messenger and prophet of , the last and the greatest law-bearer in a series of Islamic prophets as taught by the...
and, according to Shi'a belief, heir to his legacy. It is among the most sacred Shi'a sites, and also the source of a considerable amount of revenue. The traditional hereditary holder of the keys, Haidar Raifee, fled for fear of his life after the fall of Saddam's regime. Some believed Raifee was an agent of Saddam's Ba'ath party, who had informed on countless Shi'a opponents of Saddam's regime.
Abdul Majid Al-KhoeiSayyid Abdul Majid al-Khoei , 16 August, 1962 – 10 April, 2003) was a Twelver Shia cleric and the son of Ayatollah Al-Udhma Sayyid Abul Qasim al-Khoei who was born in the holy city of Najaf....
, with the backing and protection of American and British armed forces, felt that he was in a position to broker a reconciliation between Muqtada al-Sadr and the hereditary custodian of the Shrine (or Kiliadar), Haidar Raifee. Al-Khoei escorted Haidar Raifee from hiding back to his post at the mosque. Al-Khoei was accused by many of taking orders from, and thus acting on behalf of, the American government. His support for the Ba'athist Raifee was used as a pretext for his murder by a Shi'a mob.
Witnesses have said that they were confronted at the mosque by an angry mob, some of whom shouted "Raifee is back". They called him an "animal" and threatened to beat him with their sandals (a traditional Iraqi insult.) According to reports, al-Khoei fired his pistol in the air to get the crowd to back off. However, rather than retreating, the angry crowd surged at al-Khoei, Raifee, and the nearby civilians. The mob killed Raifee with bayonets and knives. Khoei was bound, beaten, and dragged by the mob to the doors of Sadr's headquarters. Eyewitnesses told the investigating judge, Raed Juhi, that when Sadr appeared at the door, he was asked by the mob what to do with Khoei. The witnesses reported Sadr answering, "Take this person away and kill him.".
Muqtada al-Sadr claims that the murderers were not his followers, and that he in fact sent men to prevent al-Khoei's murder. The al-Sadr family sent and published official condolences to the al-Khoei family. The initial warrant against al-Sadr produced after U.S. forces decided to shut down his newspaper, Al-Hawza, alleged that members of the mob claimed to be there on al-Sadr's orders, and that he had instructed them not to kill al-Khoei inside the mosque. Al-Khoei's close followers publicly blamed former Ba'ath party members who also hated al-Khoei (in complete contradiction of his kindness to Raifee.) The charges against al-Sadr had been kept secret until his confrontation with US-led coalition forces, leading some to speculate that the charges were a politically-motivated pretext to remove Muqtada al-Sadr's considerable influence upon religious and political matters within Iraq.
Opposition to the CPA
Shortly after the US-led coalition ousted Saddam Hussein and his Ba'ath regime, al-Sadr voiced opposition to the Coalition Provisional Authority. He subsequently stated that he had more legitimacy than the Coalition-appointed
Iraqi Governing CouncilThe Iraqi Governing Council was the provisional government of Iraq from July 13, 2003 to June 1, 2004. It was established by and served under the United States-led Coalition Provisional Authority...
(IGC). In
September 2003September 2003 : January - February - March - April - May - June - July - August - September - October - November - December-Events:-September 1, 2003:*Mexican President Vicente Fox delivers his annual State of the Union address to Congress....
, he declared a
shadow governmentA shadow government is a "government-in-waiting" that remains in waiting with the intention of taking control of a government in response to some event.-Politics:...
, in opposition to the IGC officials, who were chosen by the US.
In April 2003 his followers, organized as the Sadr Bureau, began providing services throughout
Sadr CitySadr City is a suburb district of the city of Baghdad, Iraq. It was built in 1959 by Prime Minister Abdul Karim Qassim and later unofficially renamed Sadr City after deceased Shia leader Mohammad Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr. Sadr City is one of nine administrative districts in Baghdad...
. The services ranged from health care to food and clean water. Later in 2003, residents of Sadr City meeting in neighborhood caucuses elected neighborhood councils, and ultimately a district council to represent the Sadr City District. The Sadr Bureau, aided by the
Mahdi ArmyThis page describes the Shia Mahdi Army of contemporary Iraq; for the Sunni Mahdi Army of Nineteenth Century Sudan, see Muhammad Ahmad.The Mahdi Army, also known as the Mahdi Militia or Jaish al Mahdi , is an Iraqi paramilitary force created by the Iraqi Shi'ite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr in June...
, attempted to remove the new District Council by force of arms and occupied the District Council Hall for several weeks. Finally, Coalition forces removed them from the premises, and the elected District Council resumed their duties. Despite this action by the Coalition authorities, the Sadr Bureau and the Mahdi Army have continued to act within Sadr City almost unhindered by US and Iraqi forces. Members of the elected District Council have been continually threatened, and some have been attacked for their alleged co-operation with the Americans.
Al-Hawza and Rebellion
At the end of
March 2004March 2004 : January - February - March - April - May - June - July - August - September - October - November - December-Events:March 2004 : January - February - March - April - May - June - July - August - September - October - November - December-Events:...
, Coalition authorities (759th MP Battalion) in Iraq shut down Sadr's newspaper, al-Hawza, on charges of inciting
violenceViolence is the expression of physical or verbal force against self or other, compelling action against one's will on pain of being hurt. Variant uses of the term refer to the destruction of non-living objects . Worldwide, violence is used as a tool of manipulation and also is an area of concern...
(as a side note, al-Hawza is also the name of the religious institution (of colleges), in
NajafNajaf is a city in Iraq about 160 km south of Baghdad. Its estimated population in 2008 is 900,600 people. It is the capital of Najaf Governorate...
, which was headed by Sadr's father). The Coalition authorities said false reporting, including articles that ascribed suicide bombings to Americans, could spark off violence.
Sadr responded by mobilizing many Shi'a followers to demonstrations, protesting at the closure of the newspaper, but the demonstrations escalated throughout the week in number and militancy. On April 4, fighting broke out in Najaf, Sadr City and Basra. Sadr's
Mahdi ArmyThis page describes the Shia Mahdi Army of contemporary Iraq; for the Sunni Mahdi Army of Nineteenth Century Sudan, see Muhammad Ahmad.The Mahdi Army, also known as the Mahdi Militia or Jaish al Mahdi , is an Iraqi paramilitary force created by the Iraqi Shi'ite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr in June...
took over several points and attacked coalition soldiers, killing dozens of foreign soldiers, and taking many casualties of their own in the process. At the same time, Sunni rebels in the cities of
BaghdadBaghdad is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is coterminous. Having a municipal population estimated at 6.5 million, it is the largest city in Iraq and the second largest in the Arab World....
,
SamarraSāmarrā is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Salah ad-Din Governorate, north of Baghdad and, in 2003, had an estimated population of 348,700....
,
RamadiRamadi is a city in central Iraq, about west of Baghdad. It is the capital of Al Anbar Governorate.-History:Ramadi is located in a fertile, irrigated, alluvial plain. The Ottoman Empire founded Ramadi in 1869...
, and, most notably,
FallujahFallujah is a city in the Iraqi province of Al Anbar, located roughly 69 kilometers west of Baghdad on the Euphrates. Fallujah dates from Babylonian times and was host to important Jewish academies for many centuries...
, staged uprisings as well, causing the most serious challenge to coalition control of Iraq up to that time.
Paul Bremer, then the U.S. administrator in Iraq, declared on April 5, 2004 that the militant cleric was an
outlawAn outlaw or bandit is a person living the lifestyle of outlawry; the word literally means "outside the law".In the common law of England, a "Writ of Outlawry" declared the subject to be "Caput gerat lupinum" , and it followed not only that, since the subject was no longer human, he had no legal...
and that uprisings by the cleric and his followers would not be tolerated. It emerged that, some months earlier, an Iraqi
judgeA judge, or arbiter of justice, is a lead official who presides over a court of law, either alone or as part of a panel of judges. The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, and training of judges vary widely across different jurisdictions. The judge is like an umpire in a game and...
had issued an arrest warrant for al-Sadr on charges relating to the murder of al-Khoei. This had apparently been kept secret for some time but was now announced publicly by Bremer. Several senior U.S. politicians suggested that the revolt would push back the date for the transfer of power to the IGC, but the handover nevertheless occurred on June 28, 2004, two days ahead of schedule.
August 2004 hostilities
After the June 4th truce with the U.S. led coalition forces, Al-Sadr claimed to be taking steps to disband the Mahdi army. In a statement, he called on resistance members from outside Najaf to "do their duty" and go home. U.S. forces in Najaf were then replaced by Iraqi police. Al-Sadr told supporters not to attack Iraqi security forces and set himself up to become a political force, announcing his intention to form a party and contest the 2005 elections. He said that the interim government was an opportunity to build a unified Iraq. Interim President Ghazi Yawer gave assurances that al-Sadr could join the political process, provided he abandoned his resistance movement. Iraqi officials also assured al-Sadr that he was not to face arrest.
Despite the promises of the Iraqi government, in late July Sadr announced his intention to boycott the upcoming national conference, as did the Association of Muslim Scholars, a Sunni organization. Although al-Sadr initially promised to support the conference, he changed his mind, claiming through a spokesman that it was "a sad joke" and "a trick on the Iraqi people" because of the allegedly undemocratic process for selecting the delegates. On 31 July, al-Sadr's representative in Karbala, Sheikh
Mithal al HasnawiSheikh Mithal al Hasnawi was a representative of radical cleric Moqtada al Sadr in Karbala, Iraq, before being captured by US and Iraqi National Guard troops in a joint operation on July 31, 2004. His brother was also captured in the raid.-External links:*...
, and al-Hasnawi's brother were captured by U.S. and Iraqi National Guard troops in a joint raid. Sadr representatives condemned the move, reportedly saying "We demand that they be freed, and if this is ignored then we will respond at the appropriate time."
Muqtada's violent threats regarding what he and his people might do if he didn't get his way was a blatant challenge to the new and unstable government's authority. It was also a clear breach of the peace agreement he had signed. Iraqi policemen and U.S. troops surrounded al-Sadr's home on 3 August, resulting in heavy gunfire, mortar shelling and grenade blasts, courtesy of hundreds of Mehdi Army fighters who were already defending the house. Quickly, the clashes spread to the old city of Najaf. There, al-Sadr's fighters had already taken up well-fortified positions around the great Imam Ali mosque. The apparent aim was to arrest al-Sadr and destroy his movement.
On August 5, via his spokesman Ahmed al-Shaibany, al-Sadr reaffirmed his commitment to the truce and called on U.S. forces to honor the truce. He announced that if the restoration of the ceasefire failed "then the firing and igniting of the revolution will continue." The offer was rejected by the governor of Najaf,
Adnan al-ZurufiAdnan al-Zurufi was the US-appointed governor of Najaf Governorate appointed May 2004. He accused Muqtada al Sadr of constantly violating his agreements to disband the Mahdi Army....
("There is no compromise or room for another truce") and U.S. officials ("This is one battle we really do feel we can win").
In the days that followed, fighting continued around the old city of Najaf, in particular the Imam Ali shrine and the cemetery. The Mahdi army was heavily outnumbered by some 2,000 U.S. marines and 1,800 Iraqi government security forces, and outgunned by superior U.S. firepower, including attack helicopters. On August 13, the resistance was trapped in a cordon around the Imam Ali shrine. The Mahdi resistance is thought to have suffered hundreds of casualties in the fighting, while U.S. Marine casualties were fairly light. (More information on the Standoff in Najaf can be found under the article on the
Iraqi insurgencyThe Iraqi insurgency is composed of a diverse mix of militias, foreign fighters, all-Iraqi units or mixtures using violent measures against the United States-led multinational force in Iraq in Iraq and the post-2003 Iraqi government, or by propaganda or money supportive thereof...
).
On August 25, Grand
AyatollahAyatollah is a high ranking title given to Usuli Twelver Shī‘ah clerics. Those who carry the title are experts in Islamic studies such as jurisprudence, ethics, and philosophy and usually teach in Islamic seminaries...
Ali al-SistaniSayyid Ali al-Husayni al-Sistani also known as Grand Ayatollah Sistani is the current highest-ranking Shi'a Muslim religious scholar in Iraq who leads the Hawza of Najaf. He is a Grand Ayatollah and Twelver Shi'a marja born in Iran and residing in Iraq since 1951...
, arrived in Iraq and began travelling with a "peace convoy" towards Najaf "to stop the bloodshed." By the next day, an agreement brokered by Sistani required the Mahdi resistance movement to disarm and leave Najaf and U.S. troops to withdraw from the city. Resistance men began handing in their weapons after al-Sadr asked them to do so and left the complex escorted by worshippers. The U.S. welcomed the agreement and vowed to respect a ceasefire. U.S. forces have stayed out of the center of Najaf since, and as of September 2004 the city was largely under the control of the Iraqi police.
On August 30, a tentative peace agreement was reached between the Iraqi government and al-Sadr to disarm his resistance in
Sadr CitySadr City is a suburb district of the city of Baghdad, Iraq. It was built in 1959 by Prime Minister Abdul Karim Qassim and later unofficially renamed Sadr City after deceased Shia leader Mohammad Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr. Sadr City is one of nine administrative districts in Baghdad...
,
BaghdadBaghdad is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is coterminous. Having a municipal population estimated at 6.5 million, it is the largest city in Iraq and the second largest in the Arab World....
. But the next day, Prime Minister
Iyad AllawiAyad Allawi is an Iraqi politician, and was the interim Prime Minister of Iraq prior to Iraq's 2005 legislative elections. A prominent Iraqi political activist who lived in exile for almost 30 years, the politically secular Shia Muslim became a member of the Iraq Interim Governing Council,...
unilaterally pulled out of talks, cancelling the peace proposal. The
New York Times reported that Allawi had wanted to enter in armed conflict with al-Sadr due to his rising popularity after the standoff in Najaf. Fighting continued in Sadr City into October 2004, with the Mahdi resistance movement sustaining losses numbering in the hundreds. The physical infrastructure of Sadr City also suffered damage during this period and there were reports of substantial civilian casualties. Ultimately al-Sadr agreed to a ceasefire, and subsequently agreed to participate in the January 2005 election process.
Opposition to the proposed Iraqi Constitution
On August 26, 2005, an estimated one-hundred thousand Iraqis marched in support of al-Sadr and his ideals.
2005 election
It is generally frowned upon in Iraq for clerics to actively participate in secular politics, and like the other leading religious figures Muqtada al-Sadr did not run in the 2005 Iraqi election. It is believed he implicitly backed the
National Independent Cadres and ElitesThe National Independent Cadres and Elites is an Iraqi political party. It represents Shi'ites who do not support the approach of the United Iraqi Alliance. It is closely associated with the movement of Moqtada al-Sadr and the Mahdi Army...
party which was closely linked with his Mahdi Army. Many of his supporters, however, backed the far more popular
United Iraqi AllianceThe National Iraqi Alliance transliterated: is an Iraqi electoral coalition that is contesting the Iraqi legislative election, 2010. The Alliance is mainly comprised of Shi'ite Islamist Arab parties...
(UIA) of al-Sistani.
2006
On March 25, 2006 Muqtada al-Sadr was in his home and escaped a mortar attack.
This attack was disputed, as the ordnance landed more than 50 meters from his home.
Sadr’s considerable leverage was apparent early in the week of 16 October 2006, when Prime Minister
Nouri al-MalikiNouri Kamil Mohammed Hasan al-Maliki , also known as Jawad al-Maliki or Abu Esraa, is the Prime Minister of Iraq and the secretary-general of the Islamic Dawa Party. Al-Maliki and his government also succeeded the Iraqi Transitional Government...
ordered the release of one of Sadr’s senior aides. The aide had been arrested a day earlier by
AmericanThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
troops on suspicion of participating in kidnappings and killings.
Capture of Amarah
On October 19, 2006, al-Sadr's Mahdi Army seized control of
AmarahAmarah , is a city in southeastern Iraq, located on a low ridge next to the Tigris River waterway south of Baghdad about 50 km from the border with Iran...
in the south of
IraqIraq , officially the Republic of Iraq , also known as Mesopotamia, is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.Iraq shares borders with Jordan to the west, Syria...
.
President of the United StatesThe President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in the United States by influence and recognition...
George W. BushGeorge Walker Bush was the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 and the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000....
was stated to have seen a possible parallel between the lead-up to the capture of
AmarahAmarah , is a city in southeastern Iraq, located on a low ridge next to the Tigris River waterway south of Baghdad about 50 km from the border with Iran...
and the 1968 Tet Offensive, which was seen as having led to the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
' withdrawal from the
Vietnam WarThe Vietnam War or the Second Indochina War was a Cold War military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1959 to 30 April 1975...
. The
White HouseThe White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., it was built between 1792 and 1800 of white-painted Aquia sandstone in the late Georgian style and has been the residence of every...
later said the President was not suggesting that a similar turning point had been reached, rather that al-Sadr was trying to influence US elections.
Hundreds of militiamen linked to Muqtada al-Sadr battled local police and members of a rival Shi'ite militia in the southeastern city of
AmarahAmarah , is a city in southeastern Iraq, located on a low ridge next to the Tigris River waterway south of Baghdad about 50 km from the border with Iran...
, destroying police stations and seizing control of entire neighborhoods, in an apparent retaliation for the arrest of one of their fighters. According to Western intelligence officials, though, Sadr appears to have lost control of part of his militia, which has splintered off into freelance death squads. In fact, it remained unclear whether he had approved the Amarah uprising before it began. Witnesses said a message from Sadr was blared over loudspeakers from vehicles in Amarah October 20, 2006, calling on gunmen to lay down their weapons. The order was widely disregarded.
On October 25, 2006 U.S. soldiers uncovered a book during a raid in the Washash neighborhood in
BaghdadBaghdad is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is coterminous. Having a municipal population estimated at 6.5 million, it is the largest city in Iraq and the second largest in the Arab World....
with information about the
Shi‘iteShia Islam , is the second largest denomination of Islam, after Sunni Islam. The followers of Shia Islam are called Shi'as or Shi'ites....
militia affiliated to Muqtada al-Sadr,
Mahdi ArmyThis page describes the Shia Mahdi Army of contemporary Iraq; for the Sunni Mahdi Army of Nineteenth Century Sudan, see Muhammad Ahmad.The Mahdi Army, also known as the Mahdi Militia or Jaish al Mahdi , is an Iraqi paramilitary force created by the Iraqi Shi'ite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr in June...
had engaged in a systematic campaign of violence and intimidation to clear out Sunni residents in this town.
On December 27, 2006 Muqtada al-Sadr's top aide,
Saheb al-AmiriSaheb al-Amiri was an Iraqi militant and insurgent, a high ranking member of the Shia Islamist Mahdi Army and senior aide to Muqtada al-Sadr. He was killed in a U.S. raid in late 2006...
was killed in a raid by U.S. troops in the Shiite holy city of Najaf
On December 30, 2006 people loyal to Muqtada al-Sadr infiltrated the security detail for Saddam Hussein's execution, chanted "Muqtada" and taunted Saddam, and got it all on film, which then circulated on Arab television and the internet.
2007 Exile
On February 13, several sources in the US government claimed that Muqtada al-Sadr had left Iraq and fled to
IranIran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran is a country in Western Asia. The name Iran has been in use natively since the Sassanid period and came into international use from 1935, before which the country was known internationally as Persia...
in anticipation of the coming security crackdown. US military spokesman Maj. Gen.
William B. CaldwellLieutenant General William B. Caldwell IV is the current Commanding General, U.S. Army Combined Arms Center and Fort Leavenworth, Kansas and oversees the Command and General Staff College and seventeen other schools, centers and training programs. He replaced General David H. Petraeus who was...
reinforced this account on February 14, but a member of
IraqIraq , officially the Republic of Iraq , also known as Mesopotamia, is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.Iraq shares borders with Jordan to the west, Syria...
's parliament and an aide to al-Sadr have denied the claims. Sami al-Askari, an adviser to Prime Minister Nuri Al-Maliki claims "as far as I know he is still in Iran" and "he's a very secretive man.".
On March 30, it was reported that Sadr, through clerics speaking on his behalf, "delivered a searing speech ... condemning the American presence in Iraq ... [and] call[ing] for an anti-occupation mass protest on April 9...." This call to protest was significant in that, since the beginning of the
American troop surgeIn the context of the Iraq War, the surge refers to United States President George W. Bush's 2007 increase in the number of American troops in order to provide security to Baghdad and Al Anbar Province....
(which began on February 14, 2007), Sadr had ordered his "militia to lie low during the new Baghdad security plan so as not to provoke a direct confrontation with the Americans."
Muqtada al-Sadr urged the Iraqi army and police to stop cooperating with the United States and told his guerilla fighters to concentrate on pushing American forces out of the country, according to a statement issued Sunday, 8 April, 2007
The statement, stamped with al-Sadr's official seal, was distributed in the Shiite holy city of Najaf on Sunday 8-April, 2007 — a day before a large demonstration there, called for by al-Sadr, to mark the fourth anniversary of the fall of Baghdad.
"You, the Iraqi army and police forces, don't walk alongside the occupiers, because they are your arch-enemy," the statement said.
On April 17, 2007, several ministers loyal to Al-Sadr left the Iraqi government. Iraqi Prime Minister
Nouri al-MalikiNouri Kamil Mohammed Hasan al-Maliki , also known as Jawad al-Maliki or Abu Esraa, is the Prime Minister of Iraq and the secretary-general of the Islamic Dawa Party. Al-Maliki and his government also succeeded the Iraqi Transitional Government...
stated that the withdrawal of these ministers had not weakened his government and that he would name technocrats to replace them soon.
Al-Sadr condemned construction of
Azamiyah wallThe Baghdad Wall is the name being given by some media outlets to a 5 km long separation barrier being built by the 2nd Brigade Combat Team, 82nd Airborne Division of the United States Army around the predominantly Sunni district of Adhamiya in Baghdad, Iraq. Construction of the 3.6 m high ...
around a Sunni neighborhood in
BaghdadBaghdad is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is coterminous. Having a municipal population estimated at 6.5 million, it is the largest city in Iraq and the second largest in the Arab World....
, on April 25, 2007, by calling for demonstrations against the plan as a sign of "the evil will" of American "occupiers".
Following fourteen weeks of hiding, on 25 May 2007 Al-Sadr reemerged. Driving in a long motorcade from Najaf to Kufa, Al-Sadr proceeded to deliver a sermon to an estimated 6000 followers in the main mosque. Reiterating his usual condemnation of the United States presence in Iraq, Al-Sadr's speech also contained calls for unity between Sunni and Shi'a. Many saw the speech as an effort to rein in his militia, which has broken into several factions since his departure. Several of these factions have been accused of violence against Sunnis.
In
June 2007June 2007 is the sixth month of that year. It began on a Friday and 30 days later, ended on a Saturday.-International holidays :* June 4 - Queen's Official Birthday * June 5 - Constitution Day...
, Muqtada al-Sadr vowed to go ahead with a planned march to the devastated Askariya shrine in central
IraqIraq , officially the Republic of Iraq , also known as Mesopotamia, is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.Iraq shares borders with Jordan to the west, Syria...
but insisted the goal was not to confront Sunnis who live along the way. Instead, al-Sadr said the march was aimed at bringing Shiites and Sunnis closer together and breaking down the barriers imposed by the Americans and Sunni religious extremists.
Sadr's aides later admitted that Sadr had been in the Iranian city of Qom since 2007. They said that he was there to study, but refused to elaborate because, "it encourages our enemies".
August 2007 Truce
In a statement issued August 29, 2007, Muqtada al-Sadr announced that an order to stand down for six months had been distributed to his loyalists following the deaths of more than 50 Shia Muslim pilgrims during
sectarian fighting in the holy city of KarbalaThe Battle of Karbala began on the night of August 27 2007 and involved fighting between the Mahdi Army, who provided security for the pilgrims, and police in Karbala, Iraq....
the day before. The statement issued by Sadr's office in Najaf said: "I direct the Mahdi army to suspend all its activities for six months until it is restructured in a way that helps honour the principles for which it is formed." The intention behind the ceasefire was thought in part to be to allow al-Sadr reassert control over the movement, which is thought to have splintered. "We call on all Sadrists to observe self-restraint, to help security forces control the situation and arrest the perpetrators and sedition mongers, and urge them to end all forms of armament in the sacred city," said the statement, referring to the August 28 clashes in Karbala. Asked if the unexpected order meant no attacks on American troops, as well as a ban on Shia infighting, a senior al-Sadr aide said: "All kinds of armed actions are to be frozen, without exception."
2008
The grass-roots cleric whose
Mahdi ArmyThis page describes the Shia Mahdi Army of contemporary Iraq; for the Sunni Mahdi Army of Nineteenth Century Sudan, see Muhammad Ahmad.The Mahdi Army, also known as the Mahdi Militia or Jaish al Mahdi , is an Iraqi paramilitary force created by the Iraqi Shi'ite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr in June...
militia has gained notoriety among coalition troops March 7, 2008 admitted many followers have split from his movement or do not heed his leadership.
- The political movement of powerful Shiite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr launched, amid the Battle of Basra (2008)
The Battle of Basra began on March 25, 2008, when the Iraqi Army launched an operation to drive the Mahdi Army militia out of the southern Iraqi city of Basra...
, a nationwide civil disobedience campaign across IraqIraq , officially the Republic of Iraq , also known as Mesopotamia, is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.Iraq shares borders with Jordan to the west, Syria...
to protest raids and detentions against the Mahdi ArmyThis page describes the Shia Mahdi Army of contemporary Iraq; for the Sunni Mahdi Army of Nineteenth Century Sudan, see Muhammad Ahmad.The Mahdi Army, also known as the Mahdi Militia or Jaish al Mahdi , is an Iraqi paramilitary force created by the Iraqi Shi'ite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr in June...
.
August 8, 2008 - Shiite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr ordered most of his militiamen to disarm but said Friday he will maintain elite fighting units to resist the Americans if a timetable for the withdrawal of U.S. troops is not established. ... "Weapons are to be exclusively in the hands of one group, the resistance group," while another group called Momahidoun is to focus on social, religious and community work, Sadrist cleric Mudhafar al-Moussawi said.
2009
In response to
IsraeliIsrael officially the State of Israel , is a developed state in Western Asia located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan in the east, and Egypt on the southwest, and contains geographically diverse features within its...
attacksThe Gaza War was a three-week conflict between Israel and the Gaza Strip that took place during the winter of 2008–2009. It began on December 27, 2008, when Israeli forces launched a military attack, codenamed Operation Cast Lead , on the Gaza Strip...
on
HamasHamas is a Palestinian Islamic socio-political organization which includes a paramilitary force, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades...
in the
Gaza stripThe Gaza Strip lies on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Egypt on the south-west and Israel on the south, east and north. It is about long, and between 6 and 12 kilometers wide, with a total area of . The area is recognized internationally as part of the Palestinian territories...
, al-Sadr called for reprisals against U.S. troops in Iraq: "I call upon the honest Iraqi resistance to carry out revenge operations against the great accomplice of the Zionist enemy." A U.S. State Department spokesperson dismissed the statement as "outrageous and, frankly, not worthy of much more comment."
On May 1, 2009 Al-Sadr paid a surprise visit to
AnkaraAnkara is the capital of Turkey and the country's second largest city after Istanbul. The city has a mean elevation of , and as of 2007 the city had a population of 4,751,360, which includes eight districts under the city's administration...
where, in his first public appearance for two years, he met with Turkish President
Abdullah GülAbdullah Gül, GCB, GColIH, Ph.D. is the 11th President of the Republic of Turkey, serving in that office since 28 August 2007...
and Prime Minister
Recep Tayyip ErdoğanRecep Tayyip Erdoğan is a Turkish politician, a former mayor of Istanbul and the Prime Minister of the Republic of Turkey since 14 March, 2003...
for talks which focused on the "political process" and requested Turkey play a greater role in establishing stability in the
Middle EastThe Middle East is a region that spans southwestern Asia, southeastern Europe, and northeastern Africa. It has no clear boundaries, often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. Spokesman Sheikh Salah al-Obeidi confirmed the nature of the talks that had been requested by Al-Sadr and stated, "Turkey is a good, old friend. Trusting that, we had no hesitation in traveling here." He has met Khamenei and "told him that we share the same ideology, but that politically and militarily, I would not be an extension of Iran."
Relation with Shi‘ites and Clerics
Al-Sadr commands strong support (especially in the
Sadr CitySadr City is a suburb district of the city of Baghdad, Iraq. It was built in 1959 by Prime Minister Abdul Karim Qassim and later unofficially renamed Sadr City after deceased Shia leader Mohammad Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr. Sadr City is one of nine administrative districts in Baghdad...
ghettoOriginally used in Venice to describe the area where Jews were compelled to live, a ghetto is now described as a "portion of a city in which members of a minority group live; especially because of social, legal, or economic pressure." - Etymology :...
in
BaghdadBaghdad is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is coterminous. Having a municipal population estimated at 6.5 million, it is the largest city in Iraq and the second largest in the Arab World....
, formerly called Saddam City but renamed after the elder al-Sadr). After the fall of the Saddam government in 2003, Muqtada al-Sadr organized thousands of his supporters into a political movement, which includes a military wing known as the
Jaysh al-Mahdi or
Mahdi ArmyThis page describes the Shia Mahdi Army of contemporary Iraq; for the Sunni Mahdi Army of Nineteenth Century Sudan, see Muhammad Ahmad.The Mahdi Army, also known as the Mahdi Militia or Jaish al Mahdi , is an Iraqi paramilitary force created by the Iraqi Shi'ite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr in June...
).. The name refers to the
MahdiAccording to the Shia and Sunni versions of the Islamic eschatology the Mahdi is the prophesied redeemer of Islam who will stay on earth seven, nine, or nineteen years before the coming of the day, Yawm al-Qiyamah...
, a long-since disappeared
imamAn imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the leader of a mosque and the community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads the prayer during Islamic gatherings. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have an Islamic question...
who is thought by Shii
Muslim:A Muslim , , is an adherent of the religion of Islam. The feminine form is Muslimah . Literally, the word means "one who submits ". Muslim is the participle of the same verb of which Islam is the infinitive. Muslims believe that there is only one God, translated in Arabic as Allah...
s to be due to reappear when the end of time approaches. This group has periodically engaged in violent conflict with US and other Coalition forces, while the larger Sadrist movement has formed its own religious courts, and organized social services, law enforcement and
prisonA prison is a place in which people are physically confined and, usually, deprived of a range of personal freedoms. Other terms are penitentiary, correctional facility, and jail , although in the United States "jail" and "prison" refer to different subtypes of correctional facility...
s in areas under its control.
Relations with al-Sistani
Relations with the most powerful cleric in Iraq, Grand Ayatollah
Ali al-SistaniSayyid Ali al-Husayni al-Sistani also known as Grand Ayatollah Sistani is the current highest-ranking Shi'a Muslim religious scholar in Iraq who leads the Hawza of Najaf. He is a Grand Ayatollah and Twelver Shi'a marja born in Iran and residing in Iraq since 1951...
, have also been tense. Al-Sistani's approach of non-violent confrontation and negotiation rather than guerilla resistance is often in conflict with the radical young al-Sadr. Al-Sistani is said by observers to draw support from established, property-owning Shi'ites, while Muqtada al-Sadr's support is strongest among the uneducated urban poor, many of whom see him as their champion. The murder of
Abdul Majid al-KhoeiSayyid Abdul Majid al-Khoei , 16 August, 1962 – 10 April, 2003) was a Twelver Shia cleric and the son of Ayatollah Al-Udhma Sayyid Abul Qasim al-Khoei who was born in the holy city of Najaf....
, the son of al-Sistani's mentor Grand Ayatollah Abul-Qassim Khoei, believed to be by Muqtada's forces, may be an additional source of tension.
Sadr's followers attempted to seize control of the al-Sistani-controlled holy sites in
KarbalaKarbala is a city in Iraq, located about southwest of Baghdad at 32.61°N, 44.08°E. In the time of Husayn ibn Alī's life, the place was also known as al-Ghadiriyah, Naynawa, and Shathi'ul-Furaat. The estimated population in 2003 was 572,300 people. It is the capital of Karbala Governorate...
in October 2003 but were repulsed, with dozens of people killed and injured. Armed clashes between al-Sadr's al-Mahdi Army and the
Badr OrganizationBadr Organization was an armed wing for the Supreme Islamic Iraqi Council . Headed by Hadi Al-Amiri it participated in the 2005 Iraqi election as part of the United Iraqi Alliance coalition...
have broken out with significant bloodshed resulting. However, Sistani has thus far refused to publicly chastise Sadr for the spring uprising against the US led coalition, instead decreeing that both sides should avoid incitement to violence and condemning the coalition for its tactics. This led many Muqtada supporters to believe that al-Sistani's refusal to call for armed attacks on the United States or zionist and imperialist powers is un-Islamic, further polarizing the dichotomy that is the Iraqi shia population toward Muqtada al-Sadr.
Popularity
The popularity of al-Sadr's movement is under debate. Some in the American press referred to him and his followers as little more than thugs, and the Coalition Provisional Authority continually referred to him as having little support. In fact, a June 2004 US-sponsored poll reported that 67 percent of respondents supported him (with 32 percent offering "strong support", and 36 percent saying they "somewhat support" him). He was the third most popular political figure, behind
Ali SistaniSayyid Ali al-Husayni al-Sistani also known as Grand Ayatollah Sistani is the current highest-ranking Shi'a Muslim religious scholar in Iraq who leads the Hawza of Najaf. He is a Grand Ayatollah and Twelver Shi'a marja born in Iran and residing in Iraq since 1951...
but far ahead of
Iyad AllawiAyad Allawi is an Iraqi politician, and was the interim Prime Minister of Iraq prior to Iraq's 2005 legislative elections. A prominent Iraqi political activist who lived in exile for almost 30 years, the politically secular Shia Muslim became a member of the Iraq Interim Governing Council,...
, who was opposed by 61 percent and supported by only 23 percent of respondents. (This poll was taken before Allawi became prime minister.) Despite al-Sadr's popularity, only two percent of respondents selected him as their first choice for President of Iraq. (Allawi, who soon after became Prime Minister, received far less support in this category as well.)
The sacred
Imam Ali mosqueThe Imām ‘Alī Holy Shrine , also known as Masjid Ali or the Mosque of ‘Alī, is a mosque located in Najaf, Iraq. ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib, the cousin of Muhammad, the fourth caliph is buried here...
has reportedly been issuing prayers for his safety during the call for prayer, and images of his face have been plastered all over the south of Iraq. Muqtada al-Sadr's real power base are a network of Shi‘a charitable institutions, founded by his father, that distributed food in poor Shi‘a areas.
His strongest support comes from the class of dispossessed Shi‘a, like in the Sadr City area of Baghdad. Many Iraqi supporters see in him a symbol of resistance to foreign occupation. It is true that he does not have strong popularity in
NajafNajaf is a city in Iraq about 160 km south of Baghdad. Its estimated population in 2008 is 900,600 people. It is the capital of Najaf Governorate...
, where he is blamed along with U.S. forces for provoking the standoff and the resulting violence. But sociologist Michael Schwartz (SUNY-Stony Brook) argues that al-Sadr's supporters in Sadr City constitute a "proto-government" with many of the trappings of established legitimacy.
Naomi KleinNaomi Klein is a Canadian journalist, author and activist known for her political analyses and criticism of corporate globalization.-Family:...
, writing in the
Nation, has called al-Sadr and his supporters "the single greatest threat to U.S. military and economic control of Iraq."
During the first siege of Fallujah in late March and April 2004, Muqtada's Sadrists sent aid convoys to the besieged Sunnis there. In spring of 2005, the Association of Muslim Scholars (hardline Sunni) accused the Shia Badr Corps paramilitary of having formed anti-Sunni death squads inside the special police commando units of the Ministry of the Interior. This open accusation caused a political crisis between AMS and the Supreme Council for Islamic Revolution in Iraq, the Shia fundamentalist party that sponsors the Badr Corps. It was Muqtada al-Sadr who engaged in shuttle diplomacy to calm the two parties down. He could play this role because he had credibility with both sides.
From his side, Muqtada makes a distinction between "Sunnis" on the one hand, and "Saddamis" and "Nawasib" on the other. (Nawasib are those Sunnis who have a violent hatred for the Shias, and nowadays in Iraq "al-Qaeda" would be such a group in Muqtada's eyes.)
Titles
He is often referred to as Sayyid Muqtada Al-Sadir. The title
SayyidSayyid literally means Mister. In the Arab world itself, the word is the equivalent of Engl. "Mister", as in Sayyid John Smith...
(approx. Mr, Sir, Master) is generally used among the Shi‘a to denote persons descending directly from the Prophet Mohammad, through his daughter
FatimaFatima may refer to:* Fátima, Portugal, Portuguese town** Our Lady of Fátima, what believers say was a Marian apparition at Fátima in 1917** Fatima Prayer, prayer originating from what believers say was an apparition...
's marriage with Ali, which is thought to be the bloodline from which Islamic leadership must come. Thus a great deal of respect is paid by the Shi'as to the Sayyids throughout Shi'a society. The al-Sadr family has a clear and distinct lineage that can be traced directly to
MuhammadMuhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh , is the founder of the religion of Islam [ إِسْلامْ ] and is regarded by Muslims as a messenger and prophet of , the last and the greatest law-bearer in a series of Islamic prophets as taught by the...
. The lineage is traced through Imam Jafar al-Sadiq and his son Imam
Musa al-KadhimMūsá ibn Ja‘far al-Kāżim / al-Kādhim was the seventh of the Twelve Imams. He was the son of the sixth Imam, and his mother was Hamidah Khātūn, a student and former slave of African descent...
, the sixth and seventh Shi‘a
ImamAn imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the leader of a mosque and the community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads the prayer during Islamic gatherings. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have an Islamic question...
s respectively.
Muqtada al-Sadr's formal religious standing is comparatively low, at a mid-ranking Shia religious rank, perhaps reflecting his young age. However, in early 2008, Al-Sadr was reported to be studying to be an
ayatollahAyatollah is a high ranking title given to Usuli Twelver Shī‘ah clerics. Those who carry the title are experts in Islamic studies such as jurisprudence, ethics, and philosophy and usually teach in Islamic seminaries...
, which would greatly improve his religious standing and strengthen his position vis-a-vis non-Sadrist Shia.
See also
- Shia Islam
- Post-invasion Iraq, 2003–present
- Mahdi Army
This page describes the Shia Mahdi Army of contemporary Iraq; for the Sunni Mahdi Army of Nineteenth Century Sudan, see Muhammad Ahmad.The Mahdi Army, also known as the Mahdi Militia or Jaish al Mahdi , is an Iraqi paramilitary force created by the Iraqi Shi'ite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr in June...
- Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr
Grand Ayatollah is an Iraqi Twelver Shi'a cleric of high rank. He is the father of Muqtada al-Sadr . Sometimes the son is called by his father's name. He is the cousin of Grand Ayatollah Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr . The al-Sadr family are considered Sayyid, which is used among the Shia to denote...
- 2003 invasion of Iraq
The 2003 invasion of Iraq, was led by the United States, backed by British forces and smaller contingents from Australia, Denmark, Poland and Spain. Four countries participated with troops during the initial invasion phase, which lasted from March 20 to May 1...
- Iraqi insurgency
The Iraqi insurgency is composed of a diverse mix of militias, foreign fighters, all-Iraqi units or mixtures using violent measures against the United States-led multinational force in Iraq in Iraq and the post-2003 Iraqi government, or by propaganda or money supportive thereof...
- Islamic eschatology
Islamic eschatology is concerned with the al-Qiyāmah "Last Judgement". Eschatology relates to one of the five articles of faith of Islam...
External links
- "Chain wrapped around old mans body found in mosque," CNN World
- "Defining Muqtada," Columbia Journalism Review
- Nimrod RaphaeliL Understanding Muqtada al-Sadr, Middle East Quarterly, the Iraqi cleric takes on the United States... and Iraq.
- Global Security analysis and biography
- Messianic leaders in Iraq, Iran
- Juan Cole, October/November 2003 "The Iraqi Shiites". The Boston Review.
- SourceWatch article with links to articles about al-Sadr
- 60 Minutes interview
- Al-Sadr: Allawi team worse than Saddam (14 August 2004, Al Jazeera
Al Jazeera , which means "The Island" or "The Peninsula" in Arabic, referring to the network's status as the only independent news network in the Middle East, is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar...
)
- Najaf assault turns allies against US (Reuters, Friday 13 August 2004)
- U.S. vs. Sadr: A saga of missed opportunities (14 August 2004, The Philadelphia Inquirer)
- Najaf standoff ends (Friday 27 August 2004, Al Jazeera)
- Najaf standoff ends: al-Sistani and al-Sadr Bring Peace to Najaf (Al-Jazeerah.info
Al-Jazeerah Information Center is a non-profit United States – based "news and research publication" edited by Dr. Hassan El-Najjar, a Gaza-born associate professor teaching sociology and anthropology at Dalton State College, Georgia, founded in 2001. It is not affiliated in any way with the...
, 26 August 2004)
- Juan Cole, 02/19/2006 "Muqtada al-Sadr on al-Jazeera. "Ready to attack the Americans if they Attack Iran or Syria" "In a Democratic Iraq, Kurds will not need Own Region""
- International Crisis Group Report Iraq’s Muqtada Al-Sadr: Spoiler or Stabiliser?
- Juan Cole, expert on Shia Muslims, explains why Muqtada al-Sadr could be popular with Sunni Iraqis too http://www.juancole.com/2007/01/muqtada-al-sadr-and-sunnis-mickey-kaus.html
- "Sadrists: There is no such thing as 'The Iraqi Shia'", The Indypendent, January 10, 2007
- How Moqtada al-Sadr Won in Basra