Commentary on the Apocalypse
Encyclopedia
Spanish people
The Spanish are citizens of the Kingdom of Spain. Within Spain, there are also a number of vigorous nationalisms and regionalisms, reflecting the country's complex history....
monk
Monk
A monk is a person who practices religious asceticism, living either alone or with any number of monks, while always maintaining some degree of physical separation from those not sharing the same purpose...
and theologian Beatus of Liébana
Beatus of Liébana
Saint Beatus of Liébana was a monk, theologian and geographer from the Kingdom of Asturias, in modern northern Spain, who worked and lived in the Picos de Europa mountains of the region of Liébana, in what is now Cantabria and his feast day is February 19.-Biography:He created an important...
. Today, it refers to any of the extant manuscript copies of this work, especially any of the 26 illuminated
Illuminated manuscript
An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders and miniature illustrations...
copies that have survived. It is often referred to simply as the Beatus. The historical significance of the Commentary is made even more pronounced since it included a world map, which offers a rare insight into the geographical understanding of the post-Roman
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
world. Well-known copies include the Morgan
Morgan Beatus
The Morgan Beatus is an illuminated manuscript with miniatures by the artist Magius of the Commentary on the Book of the Apocalypse by the eighth-century Spanish monk Beatus, which described the end of days and the Last Judgment...
, the Saint-Sever
Saint-Sever Beatus
The Saint-Sever Beatus, also known as the Apocalypse of Saint-Sever , is a French Romanesque illuminated Apocalypse manuscript from the 11th century. It was made at the Abbey of Saint-Sever. It contains the Commentary on the Apocalypse of Beatus of Liébana...
, the Gerona
Gerona Beatus
The Gerona Beatus is a 10th century illuminated manuscript currently housed in the museum of Girona Cathedral, Catalonia, Spain.The manuscript contains two separate documents: the Commentary on the Apocalypse by Beatus of Liébana, a late eighth century manuscript popular in medieval SpainSo...
, the Osma and the Madrid (Vitr 14-1) Beatus codices.
Considered together, the Beatus codices are among the most important Spanish
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
medieval
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
manuscripts and have been the subject of extensive scholarly and antiquarian enquiry.
The Commentary on the Apocalypse (Commentaria In Apocalypsin)
It is a work of erudition but without great originality, made up principally of compilations. Beatus includes long extracts from the texts of the Fathers of the Church and Doctors of the Church, especially Augustine of HippoAugustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo , also known as Augustine, St. Augustine, St. Austin, St. Augoustinos, Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed, was Bishop of Hippo Regius . He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province...
(Saint Augustine), Ambrose
Ambrose
Aurelius Ambrosius, better known in English as Saint Ambrose , was a bishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He was one of the four original doctors of the Church.-Political career:Ambrose was born into a Roman Christian family between about...
of Milan (Saint Ambrose), Irenaeus of Lyons (Saint Irenaeus
Irenaeus
Saint Irenaeus , was Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, then a part of the Roman Empire . He was an early church father and apologist, and his writings were formative in the early development of Christian theology...
), and Isidore of Seville
Isidore of Seville
Saint Isidore of Seville served as Archbishop of Seville for more than three decades and is considered, as the historian Montalembert put it in an oft-quoted phrase, "le dernier savant du monde ancien"...
(Saint Isidore). He adds to this the commentary on the Book of Daniel
Book of Daniel
The Book of Daniel is a book in the Hebrew Bible. The book tells of how Daniel, and his Judean companions, were inducted into Babylon during Jewish exile, and how their positions elevated in the court of Nebuchadnezzar. The court tales span events that occur during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar,...
by Jerome of Stridon (Saint Jerome
Saint Jerome
Saint Jerome is a Christian church father, best known for translating the Bible into Latin.Saint Jerome may also refer to:*Jerome of Pavia , Bishop of Pavia...
).
The Apocalypse and its origins
The Book of RevelationBook of Revelation
The Book of Revelation is the final book of the New Testament. The title came into usage from the first word of the book in Koine Greek: apokalupsis, meaning "unveiling" or "revelation"...
, also known as The Revelation or Apocalypse
Apocalypse
An Apocalypse is a disclosure of something hidden from the majority of mankind in an era dominated by falsehood and misconception, i.e. the veil to be lifted. The Apocalypse of John is the Book of Revelation, the last book of the New Testament...
of St John, was written in the last part of the 1st century AD, probably during the persecution of Christians carried out under either the Roman emperor Nero
Nero
Nero , was Roman Emperor from 54 to 68, and the last in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great-uncle Claudius to become his heir and successor, and succeeded to the throne in 54 following Claudius' death....
or Domitian
Domitian
Domitian was Roman Emperor from 81 to 96. Domitian was the third and last emperor of the Flavian dynasty.Domitian's youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his brother Titus, who gained military renown during the First Jewish-Roman War...
. The concept of the Apocalypse, finds roots in the later books of the Old Testament
Old Testament
The Old Testament, of which Christians hold different views, is a Christian term for the religious writings of ancient Israel held sacred and inspired by Christians which overlaps with the 24-book canon of the Masoretic Text of Judaism...
, most notably from the Book of Daniel
Book of Daniel
The Book of Daniel is a book in the Hebrew Bible. The book tells of how Daniel, and his Judean companions, were inducted into Babylon during Jewish exile, and how their positions elevated in the court of Nebuchadnezzar. The court tales span events that occur during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar,...
, and the Prophets as they speak of the Day of the Lord. Thus Revelation has a conceptual and contextual basis in prior Jewish literature.
The Revelation is apocalyptic literature, a vision of the future revealed to a person, written in a poetic prose encrypted in symbols and riddles. Thus Revelation is commonly interpreted as a prophecy
Prophecy
Prophecy is a process in which one or more messages that have been communicated to a prophet are then communicated to others. Such messages typically involve divine inspiration, interpretation, or revelation of conditioned events to come as well as testimonies or repeated revelations that the...
concerning the end of the world and last things
Eschatology
Eschatology is a part of theology, philosophy, and futurology concerned with what are believed to be the final events in history, or the ultimate destiny of humanity, commonly referred to as the end of the world or the World to Come...
. The Book of Revelation
Book of Revelation
The Book of Revelation is the final book of the New Testament. The title came into usage from the first word of the book in Koine Greek: apokalupsis, meaning "unveiling" or "revelation"...
is also seen as a 'gospel of hope' since it tells the martyred masses that their past suffering on Earth has led them to eternal bliss.
The message
After 711 AD, Spanish Christians found themselves being persecuted by Muslims. They could no longer practice their religion openly; bells and processions were forbidden; churches and monasteries were destroyed and were unable to be reconstructed; persecutions often lead to bloody outcomes. The ApocalypseApocalypse
An Apocalypse is a disclosure of something hidden from the majority of mankind in an era dominated by falsehood and misconception, i.e. the veil to be lifted. The Apocalypse of John is the Book of Revelation, the last book of the New Testament...
became a support for the Christian resistance. The symbolism
Christian symbolism
Christian symbolism invests objects or actions with an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas. Christianity has borrowed from the common stock of significant symbols known to most periods and to all regions of the world. Religious symbolism is effective when it appeals to both the intellect and...
in it took on a whole new meaning for them. The beast, which had previously been believed to represent the Roman Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
, now became the Califate, and Babylon
Babylon
Babylon was an Akkadian city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad...
was no longer Rome, but Córdoba
Córdoba, Spain
-History:The first trace of human presence in the area are remains of a Neanderthal Man, dating to c. 32,000 BC. In the 8th century BC, during the ancient Tartessos period, a pre-urban settlement existed. The population gradually learned copper and silver metallurgy...
. The Apocalypse
Apocalypse
An Apocalypse is a disclosure of something hidden from the majority of mankind in an era dominated by falsehood and misconception, i.e. the veil to be lifted. The Apocalypse of John is the Book of Revelation, the last book of the New Testament...
, which before had been interpreted as a prophecy
Prophecy
Prophecy is a process in which one or more messages that have been communicated to a prophet are then communicated to others. Such messages typically involve divine inspiration, interpretation, or revelation of conditioned events to come as well as testimonies or repeated revelations that the...
of the end of roman persecution, became the cry for Reconquista
Reconquista
The Reconquista was a period of almost 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms succeeded in retaking the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula broadly known as Al-Andalus...
and a promise of deliverance and punishment. This naturally appealed to the believing masses and ended up being, at least in occupied Spain, more important to them than the Gospels.
Principal copies
The more notable among the 31 Beatus manuscripts are :- The NájeraNájeraNájera is a small town located in the "Rioja Alta" region of La Rioja, Spain on the river Najerilla. Nájera is a stopping point on the Way of St James.-History:...
fragment. 9th century. Abbey of Santo Domingo de SilosSanto Domingo de SilosSanto Domingo de Silos is a municipality located in the province of Burgos, Castile and León, Spain. According to the 2004 census , the municipality has a population of 292 inhabitants....
. - Beatus of the Monastery of San Millán de la CogollaMonasteries of San Millán de la CogollaThe monasteries of San Millán de Suso and San Millán de Yuso are two monasteries situated in the village of San Millán de la Cogolla, La Rioja, Spain. They have been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO....
. Ca. 930930Year 930 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* With the establishment of the Althing, now one of the world's oldest parliaments, the Icelandic Commonwealth is founded....
. MadridMadridMadrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. The population of the city is roughly 3.3 million and the entire population of the Madrid metropolitan area is calculated to be 6.271 million. It is the third largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan...
. Real Academia de la Historia. Ms. 33. - Beatus of San Millán. Ca. 950950Year 950 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Duke Boleslav I of Bohemia makes peace with Otto I....
/ 955955Year 955 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* August 10 – Battle of Lechfeld: Otto I the Great defeats the Magyars, halting their westward expansion and ending the threat to Germany.* Eadwig becomes King of England.- Religion :* December 16 – Pope...
. The Escorial. Real Biblioteca de San Lorenzo. Ms. & II. 5. 225 x 355 mm. 151 leaves; 52 miniatures. - Beatus of San Miguel de EscaladaMorgan BeatusThe Morgan Beatus is an illuminated manuscript with miniatures by the artist Magius of the Commentary on the Book of the Apocalypse by the eighth-century Spanish monk Beatus, which described the end of days and the Last Judgment...
. Ca. 960960Year 960 was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Edgar the Peaceable is crowned King of England. Dunstan becomes Archbishop of Canterbury and Edgar's chief adviser. He reforms monasteries and enforces the rule of Saint Benedict: Poverty, Chastity and Obedience for...
. Pierpont Morgan Library (New YorkNew YorkNew York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
). Ms 644. 280 x 380 mm. 89 miniatures, painted by Magius, archipictor. - Beatus of San Salvador de Távara. Ca. 968968Year 968 was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* The Battle near Silistra occurs in the spring near the Bulgarian town of Silistra, but most probably on the modern territory of Romania.- Religion :* The Archbishopric of Magdeburg is founded.* The first Polish...
/ 970970Year 970 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* A devastating decade-long famine begins in France....
. MadridMadridMadrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. The population of the city is roughly 3.3 million and the entire population of the Madrid metropolitan area is calculated to be 6.271 million. It is the third largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan...
. Archivo Historico Nacional. Ms 1097 B (1240). Painted by Magius, finished after his death by his pupil Emeterius. - Beatus of Valcavado. Ca. 970970Year 970 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* A devastating decade-long famine begins in France....
. ValladolidValladolidValladolid is a historic city and municipality in north-central Spain, situated at the confluence of the Pisuerga and Esgueva rivers, and located within three wine-making regions: Ribera del Duero, Rueda and Cigales...
. Biblioteca de la Universidad. Ms. 433 (ex ms 390). 97 miniatures extant. Painted by Oveco for the abbot Semporius. - Beatus of RiojaRiojaRioja or La Rioja may refer to:Spain*Rioja, Almería*La Rioja , a province and autonomous community in northern Spain**Rioja , red and white wines from the province**La Rioja **University of La Rioja...
or LeónLeón, SpainLeón is the capital of the province of León in the autonomous community of Castile and León, situated in the northwest of Spain. Its city population of 136,985 makes it the largest municipality in the province, accounting for more than one quarter of the province's population...
. Ca. 975975Year 975 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.- Africa :* Al-Azhar University is founded in Cairo, Egypt .- Asia :...
. Cathedral of La Seu d'UrgellLa Seu d'UrgellLa Seu d'Urgell is a town located in the Catalan Pyrenees in Spain. La Seu d'Urgell is also the capital of the comarca Alt Urgell, head of the judicial district of la Seu d'Urgell and the seat of Bishop of Urgell, one of the Andorra co-princes...
. Archives. Ms. 26. 90 miniatures. - Beatus of TávaraGerona BeatusThe Gerona Beatus is a 10th century illuminated manuscript currently housed in the museum of Girona Cathedral, Catalonia, Spain.The manuscript contains two separate documents: the Commentary on the Apocalypse by Beatus of Liébana, a late eighth century manuscript popular in medieval SpainSo...
. Ca. 975975Year 975 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.- Africa :* Al-Azhar University is founded in Cairo, Egypt .- Asia :...
. Cathedral of GironaGironaGirona is a city in the northeast of Catalonia, Spain at the confluence of the rivers Ter, Onyar, Galligants and Güell, with an official population of 96,236 in January 2009. It is the capital of the province of the same name and of the comarca of the Gironès...
. Archives. Ms. 7. 260 x 400 mm. 280 leaves. 160 miniatures. Painted by Emeterius (pupil of Magius) and by the nun Ende. - Beatus of San Millán. 2nd third of the 10th century. MadridMadridMadrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. The population of the city is roughly 3.3 million and the entire population of the Madrid metropolitan area is calculated to be 6.271 million. It is the third largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan...
. Biblioteca Nacional. Ms. Vit. 14.1. - Beatus of León. 1047. MadridMadridMadrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. The population of the city is roughly 3.3 million and the entire population of the Madrid metropolitan area is calculated to be 6.271 million. It is the third largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan...
. Biblioteca Nacional. Ms. Vit. 14.2. Made for Ferdinand I and Queen Sancha. 267 x 361 mm. 312 leaves. 98 miniatures. Painted by Facundus. - Beatus. 1086. Cathedral of El Burgo de Osma. Archives. Cod. 1. 225 x 360 mm. 166 leaves. 71 miniatures. Scribe: Petrus. Painter: Martinus.
- Beatus of Saint-SeverSaint-SeverSaint-Sever is a commune in the Landes department in Aquitaine in south-western France.-History and geography:Saint-Sever stands on an eminence...
(Landes). 1060 / 1070. ParisParisParis is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
. Bibliothèque nationale. Ms. Lat. 8878. - Beatus of Santo Domingo de SilosSanto Domingo de SilosSanto Domingo de Silos is a municipality located in the province of Burgos, Castile and León, Spain. According to the 2004 census , the municipality has a population of 292 inhabitants....
. 1091 / 1109. London. British Library. Ms. Add. 11695.
Later copies
- Rylands Beatus [R]: Manchester, John Rylands LibraryJohn Rylands LibraryThe John Rylands Library is a Victorian Gothic building on Deansgate in Manchester, England. The library, which opened to the public in 1900, was founded by Mrs Enriqueta Augustina Rylands in memory of her late husband, John Rylands...
Latin MS 8), ca. 1175, - Cardeña Beatus [Pc]: ca. 1180 and is dispersd between collections in Madrid (Museo Arqueológico Nacional and Colección Francisco de Zabálburu y Basabe), New York (Metropolitan Museum of ArtMetropolitan Museum of ArtThe Metropolitan Museum of Art is a renowned art museum in New York City. Its permanent collection contains more than two million works, divided into nineteen curatorial departments. The main building, located on the eastern edge of Central Park along Manhattan's Museum Mile, is one of the...
) and Girona (Museu d’Art de Girona). - Beatus of Lorvão [L] written in 1189 in the monastery of St Mammas in Lorvão (Portugal); Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo in Lisbon.
- Arroyo Beatus [Ar] written in the 1st half of the 13th century in the region of BurgosBurgosBurgos is a city of northern Spain, historic capital of Castile. It is situated at the edge of the central plateau, with about 178,966 inhabitants in the city proper and another 20,000 in its suburbs. It is the capital of the province of Burgos, in the autonomous community of Castile and León...
, perhaps in the monastery of San Pedro de Cardeña. Paris (Bibliothèque nationale) and New York (Bernard H. Breslauer Collection).
External links
- In Apocalypsin, 1770 edition of the Commentary. Latin.
- Illuminations of Beatus
- Works of Beatus
- Miniatures from the Rylands Beatus
