The
historicityHistoricity may mean:*the quality of being part of recorded history, as opposed to prehistory*the quality of being part of history as opposed to being ahistorical myth or legend** Historicity of the Iliad**Historicity *** Historicity of Jesus...
of several saints has often been treated skeptically by most academics, either because there is a paucity of historical evidence for them, or due to striking resemblances that they have to pre-Christian deities. In 1969 the Roman Catholic church officially decanonised some Christian Saints, demoted others, and pronounced the historicity of others to be dubious. Though highly popular in the Middle Ages, many of these such saints have since been largely forgotten since, and their names may now seem quite unfamiliar. The most prominent amongst these is
Saint EustaceSaint Eustace, also known as Eustachius or Eustathius, was a legendary Christian martyr who lived in the 2nd century AD. A martyr of that name is venerated as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, which, however, judges that the legend recounted about him is "completely fabulous." For that reason...
, who was extremely popular in earlier times, but scholars now see as a
chimeraIn Greek mythology, the Chimera was a monstrous fire-breathing creature of Lycia in Asia Minor, composed of the parts of multiple animals: upon the body of a lioness with a tail that terminated in a snake's head, the head of a goat arose on her back at the center of her spine...
composed from details of several other Saints.
Background
Perhaps the simplest examples are cases most scholars regard as having originated as misinterpretation of images and phrases, with backstories developing later;
Saint VeronicaSaint Veronica or Berenice, according to the "Acta Sanctorum" published by the Bollandists , was a pious woman of Jerusalem who, moved with pity as Jesus carried his cross to Golgotha, gave him her veil that he might wipe his forehead. Jesus accepted the offering and after using it handed it back...
as a corruption of
vera icon - meaning
true icon (in
latinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Roman conquest, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe...
) - and simply a reference to the
veronica veil itself not to an owner;
Saint ChristopherSaint Christopher is a saint venerated by Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians, listed as a martyr killed in the reign of the 3rd century Roman emperor Decius ....
as a misinterpretation of
Christopher, literally
Christ bearer, a term used by early Christians to refer to themselves;
Saint Faith as misinterpretation of the Latin phrase
Sancta Fides,
holy faith;
Saint ExpeditusInformation concerning Saint Expeditus can be found only in martyrologies, so precise details about his existence cannot be obtained.From the Geronimian Martyrology:...
as misinterpretation of a label marked
Expedite (in French or Spanish depending on the account), on a delivery box containing relics of some other saint (or in one story, just a statue of a Roman soldier); and
Saint WilgefortisWilgefortis is a female saint of popular religious imagination whose cult arose in the 14th century. Her name is thought by some to derive from the Old German "heilige Vartez" , a translation of the Italian "Volto Santo"; others believe it to derive from the Latin "virgo fortis"...
as corruption of
hilge vartez,
holy face in Old German, which referred to a specific early icon by
LuccaLucca is a city in Tuscany, central Italy, situated on the river Serchio in a fertile plain near the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Lucca...
depicting a crucified Jesus with a beard and a long tunic.
Another group of
Saints whose existence is doubted by most scholars are those that appear to be remouldings of details surrounding historic non-Christian individuals, or individuals that the beatifying group would not have considered
Christian. Prominent examples of this ilk are
Saint MungoSaint Mungo is the commonly used name for Saint Kentigern . He was the late 6th century apostle of the Brythonic Kingdom of Strathclyde in modern Scotland, and patron saint and founder of the city of Glasgow.-Name:In Wales and the southern Brythonic regions of modern England, this saint is known by...
being based on
Maelgwn Hir ap CadwallonMaelgwn Gwynedd, more formally Maelgwn ap Cadwallon , also known as Maelgwn Hir , was an early king of Gwynedd and a character from Welsh mythology.The historical Maelgwn king of Gwynedd was one of the most prominent rulers of...
, a legendary
King of GwyneddGwynedd is one of several Welsh successor states that emerged in 5th-century post-Roman Britain. It was based on the former Brythonic tribal lands of the Ordovices, Gangani, and the Deceangli which were collectively known as Venedotia in late Romano-British documents...
who had the same legend of the fish and the ring, and was prominently referred to as
great hound - a similar title to
hound lord which
Kentigern, Mungo's other name, may be a corruption of;
Saint Josaphat being based on
Gautama BuddhaSiddhārtha Gautama was a spiritual teacher in the north eastern region of the Indian subcontinent who founded Buddhism. He is regarded by Buddhists as the Supreme Buddha of our age. The time of his birth and death are uncertain: most early 20th-century historians dated his lifetime as c...
via a series of Christian corruptions that derive from a
ManichaeanManichaeism was one of the major Iranian Gnostic religions, originating in Sassanid Persia. Although most of the original writings of the founding prophet Mani have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived...
corruption of a Buddhist narrative, and his name being a complex series of linguistic corruptions of
BodhisattvaIn Buddhism, a bodhisattva means either "enlightened existence " or "enlightenment-being" or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, "heroic-minded one for enlightenment ." Another translation is...
; and
Saint CatherineSaint Catherine of Alexandria, also known as Saint Catherine of the Wheel and The Great Martyr Saint Catherine is a Christian saint and martyr who is claimed to have been a noted scholar in the early 4th century. In the beginning of the fifteenth century, it was rumored that she had spoken to...
(who gave her name to
Catherine WheelCatherine Wheel were a four-piece alternative rock band from Great Yarmouth, England. The band was active from 1990 to 2000, experiencing fluctuating levels of commercial success, and embarking on many lengthy tours....
s) as deliberate Christianisation of the previously popular
Hypatia of AlexandriaHypatia of Alexandria was a Greek scholar from Alexandria in Egypt, considered the first notable woman in mathematics, who also taught philosophy and astronomy. She lived in Roman Egypt, and was killed by a Christian mob who falsely blamed her for religious turmoil...
, adding a martyrdom suitably similar to Hypatia's in its gruesomeness. Some Protestants also claim that
John of NepomukJohn of Nepomuk or John Nepomucene is a national saint of the Czech Republic, who was drowned in the Vltava river at the behest of Wenceslaus, King of the Romans and King of Bohemia. Later accounts state that he was the confessor of the queen of Bohemia and refused to divulge the secrets of the...
is a conflation of the historical cleric of that name with the great pre-Protestant leader,
Jan HusJan Hus aka Jan Huss, John Hus, John Huss , often referred to in English as John Huss or variations thereof, was a Czech Catholic priest, philosopher, reformer, and master at Charles University in Prague.He is famed for having been burned at the stake for what the Roman Catholic Church considered...
.
On the other hand there are
Saints that most scholars consider to be based on real historical figures, but have undergone partial syncretism with pre-Christian legends and beliefs.
Saint HubertSaint Hubertus or Hubert , called the "Apostle of the Ardennes" was the first Bishop of Liège. Hubertus is a Christian saint, the patron saint of hunters, mathematicians, opticians and metalworkers, and used to be invoked to cure rabies...
for example is said by legend to have been confronted, while hunting, by a
stag STAG: A Test of Love is a reality TV show, hosted by Tommy Habeeb. Each episode profiles an engaged couple a week or two before their wedding. The cameras then follow the groom on his bachelor party, recording all the crazy antics. The next day, Tommy Habeeb shows a highlight tape to the...
and threatened with being sent down to hell, which many scholars see as an iconic image deriving from
Celtic mythologyCeltic mythology is the mythology of Celtic polytheism, apparently the religion of the Iron Age Celts. Like other Iron Age Europeans, the early Celts maintained a polytheistic mythology and religious structure...
surrounding
ArawnIn Welsh mythology, Arawn was the king of the otherworld realm of Annwn.In the First Branch of the Mabinogi, Pwyll mistakenly sets his hounds upon a stag, only to discover that Arawn has been hunting the same animal...
, the lord of the underworld, who was said to have been crowned with antlers.
Saint DunstanDunstan was an Abbot of Glastonbury, a Bishop of Worcester, a Bishop of London, and an Archbishop of Canterbury, later canonised as a saint. His work restored monastic life in England and reformed the English Church...
, who historically was at one point a blacksmith, is said to have shod the
devilThe Devil is believed in certain religions and folklore to be a powerful, supernatural entity that is the personification of evil and the enemy of God and humankind. The Devil is commonly associated with heretics, infidels, and other unbelievers...
in a legend claiming to describe the origin of
horseshoeA horseshoe is a U-shaped item made of metal or of modern synthetic materials, nailed or glued to the hooves of horses and some other draught animals. Like a shoe on a human, it is used to protect the animal's feet from wear and tear...
s being placed above doors for luck, even though historically horseshoes were placed above the door for luck well before Dunstan was ever born.
More complete syncretisms are considered plausible for a number of Saints, who many scholars see as nothing more than Christianizations of mythical figures. Among those thought to derive from pre-Christian figures outside the Mediterranean sphere are Saint Brigid, whose crosses are said to protect a house from fire, is thought to derive from
BrigidIn Irish mythology, Brigit or Brighid was the daughter of the Dagda and one of the Tuatha Dé Danann. She was the wife of Bres of the Fomorians, with whom she had a son, Ruadán...
, a Celtic goddess whom legends of Saint Brigid say the Saint was originally a devotee of, and whose main festival was
ImbolcImbolc is one of the four principal festivals of the Irish calendar, celebrated among Gaelic peoples and some other Celtic cultures, either at the beginning of February or at the first local signs of Spring. Most commonly it is celebrated on February 2, which falls halfway between the Winter...
, which is the same date as the feast day of Saint Brigid, and whose main sanctuary was
KildareKildare is a town in County Kildare, Ireland. Its population of 7,538 makes it the seventh largest town in Kildare and the 55th largest in the Republic of Ireland, with a growth rate of 32.4pc since the 2002 census...
where the Saint supposedly founded a monastery;
Saint BrendanSaint Brendan of Clonfert or Bréanainn of Clonfert called "the Navigator", "the Voyager", or "the Bold" is one of the early Irish monastic saints. He is chiefly renowned for his legendary quest to the "Isle of the Blessed," also called St. Brendan's Island. The Voyage of St...
, whose main characteristic is the legendary voyage to the
land of delight that he undertook, and is thought to derive from the main character, named
Bran, in the Celtic narrative of the
Voyage of BranImmram Brain "The Voyage of Bran " is a tale of a man's journey across the sea to avenge his father's murder. The content derives from Irish Mythology, but was written in the 8th century. Some Irish tale-lists categorize the tale as an Echtra , but it contains the essential elements of an Immram,...
;
Saint SarahSaint Sarah, also known as Sara-la-Kali , is the mythic patron saint of the Roma people. The center of her veneration is Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, a place of pilgrimage for Roma in the Camargue, in southern France...
, who is also known as
Sarah-la-Kali, and prominently venerated by the Roma, supposedly meaning
Sarah the black, but more likely derived from
KaliKali , also known as Kalika , is a Hindu goddess associated with eternal energy. The name Kali means "black", but has by folk etymology come to mean "force of time ". Despite her negative connotations, Kali is today considered the goddess of time and change...
, a deity from India, which is thought to be the country of origin for the Roma, and who has a very similar water immersion ceremony;
Saint MaximónMaximón is a folk saint venerated in various forms by Maya people of several towns in the highlands of Western Guatemala.The origins of his cult are not very well understood by outsiders to the different Mayan religions, but Maximón is believed to be a form of the pre-Columbian Maya god Mam,...
, an intimidating bully-like figure with expensive tastes, is considered to be derived from
Mam, a
Mayan deityMaya mythology is part of Mesoamerican mythology and comprises all those Mayan tales in which personified forces of nature, deities, and the heroes interacting with these play the main roles...
; and the strikingly named Saint Death, thought to be derived from
MictlantecuhtliMictlantecuhtli , in Aztec mythology, was a god of the dead and the king of Mictlan , the lowest and northernmost section of the underworld. He was one of the principal gods of the Aztecs and was the most prominent of several gods and goddesses of death and the underworld...
, the Mayan god of death.
Several prominent Roman and Greek deities appear, in the eyes of scholars, to have been converted into Christian Saints as well, in some cases their legends having been somewhat censored to suit Christian sensibilities. These include:
- Arethusa
For other uses, see ArethusaArethusa means "the waterer". She was a nymph and daughter of Nereus , and later became a fountain on the island of Ortygia in Syracuse, Sicily....
, the Nereid, a chaste deity who was chased by a minor deity, who wished to have sexual relations with her, and was forced to flee over the sea, eventually only escaping by being turned into a fountain, being Christianised into Saint Columba of Cornwall, a chaste princess being chased by a prince that wished to marry her, and was forced to flee over the sea, eventually being killed, though a fountain sprung forth where she died.
- Sabazios
Sabazios is the nomadic horseman and sky father god of the Phrygians and Thracians. In Indo-European languages, such as Phrygian, the '-zios' element in his name derives from dyeus, the common precursor of 'deus' and Zeus...
, a horse-riding, demonic serpent-killing god, or PerseusPerseus , the legendary founder of Mycenae and of the Perseid dynasty there, was the first of the mythic heroes of Greek mythology whose exploits in defeating various archaic monsters provided the founding myths in the cult of the Twelve Olympians...
, in the horse-riding, monster-killing role taken within the AndromedaAndromeda was a princess from Greek mythology who, as divine punishment for her mother's bragging, was chained to a rock as a sacrifice to a sea monster. She was saved from death by Perseus, her future husband. Her name is the Latinized form of the Greek Ανδρομέδη...
myth, being changed into the horse-riding demonic dragon-killing Saint GeorgeSaint George was, according to tradition, a Roman soldier in the Guard of Diocletian, who is venerated as a Christian martyr. In hagiography Saint George is one of the most venerated saints in the Roman Catholic Church, Anglican Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church, and the...
(the dragon was often portrayed as a serpent-like wyvernA wyvern or wivern is a legendary winged reptilian creature with two legs and a barbed tail often found in mediaeval heraldry. The word is derived from Middle English wyvere, from Old North French wivre "viper"....
)
- Oedipus
Oedipus was a mythical Greek king of Thebes. He fulfilled a prophecy that said he would kill his father and marry his mother, and thus brought disaster on his city and family...
, who was prophesied to be destined to kill his father, and to sexually sleep with his mother, and who did so despite trying desperately not to, becoming Saint JulianJulian the Hospitaller, also known as Julian the Poor, was a legendary Roman Catholic saint. His story is today believed by scholars to be fully legendary.-History:There are three main theories of his origin:...
, who was cursed by witches to kill his father and mother, and who did so despite desperately trying not to.
- Lugus
Lugus was a deity apparently worshipped widely in antiquity in the Celtic-speaking world. His name is rarely directly attested in inscriptions, but his importance can be inferred from placenames and ethnonyms, and his nature and attributes are deduced from the distinctive iconography of Gallo-Roman...
, a tripartite celtic deityA triple deity is a deity associated with the number three. Such deities are common throughout world mythology; the number three has a long history of mythical associations. C. G...
strongly associated with shoes, becoming CrispinSaints Crispin and Crispinian are the Christian patron saints of cobblers, tanners, leather workers and, recently, of leather community...
and Crispinian, twin shoemakers who fled to GaulGaul is a historical name used in the context of the Roman Empire in references to the region of Western Europe approximating present day France and Belgium, but also sometimes including the Po Valley, western Switzerland, and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the River...
.
Saint Michael the Archangel
Though not that prominent in modern times, in mediaeval times the
Archangel MichaelMichael is an archangel in Jewish, Christian and Islamic tradition. He is viewed as the field commander of the Army of God....
was a prominent figure in Christian practice, and a substantial cult existed around him. First gaining prominence in the Eastern Church, the cult of Michael eventually became so significant that his feast day, known as
MichaelmasMichaelmas, the feast of Saint Michael the Archangel is a day in the Western Christian calendar which occurs on 29 September. Because it falls near the equinox, it is associated in the northern hemisphere with the beginning of autumn and the shortening of days...
, was treated as a time of great celebration and feasting, with many popular traditions. This pre-eminence of the feast day survives in the fact that the entirety of the
autumnAutumn is one of the four temperate seasons. Autumn marks the transition from summer into winter, usually in March or September when the arrival of night becomes noticeably earlier.The equinoxes might be expected to be in the middle of their seasons, but temperature lag Autumn (also known as...
period continues to take its name from Michaelmas, in the calendars of the old universities,
Inns of CourtThe Inns of Court in London are the professional associations to one of which every barrister in England and Wales must belong. They have supervisory and disciplinary functions over their members. The Inns also provide libraries, dining facilities and professional accommodation...
, and parliaments, of the
British IslesThe British Isles are a group of islands off the northwest coast of continental Europe that include Great Britain, Ireland and numerous smaller islands. There are two sovereign states located on the islands: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and Ireland...
.
Michael is clearly based on biblical accounts referring to Michael as the chief warrior angel of
YahwehYahweh is the English rendering of יַהְוֶה , a Hebrew vocalization of the Tetragrammaton that was proposed by the Hebrew scholar Wilhelm Gesenius in the 19th century. Although this vocalized Hebrew spelling יַהְוֶה is found in no extant Hebrew Manuscript, several English Bibles use the spelling...
; however, although Michael is one of the few angels named by the
canonical scripturesApocrypha comes from the Greek word , which means those having been hidden away. The general term is usually applied to the books that were considered by the Church as useful, but not divinely inspired...
, in Judaism there was no particular cult, or
veneration, of Michael, and Michael was afforded no particular status in religious life. Consequently scholars have suggested that Michael's prominence in mediaeval Christianity derives from some alternative source, generally argued to have been Mithraism.. The central image found in all surviving
MithraeumMithraeum is a place of worship for the followers of the mystery religion of Mithraism.The Mithraeum was either an adapted natural cave or cavern or an artificial building imitating a cavern. Mithraea were dark and windowless, even if they were not actually in a subterranean space or in a natural...
s is that of the
tauroctonyA tauroctony is an artistic depiction of the mythic hero and Roman cult figure Mithras engaged in the ritual slaying of a bull. The literal act of sacrificing a bull was known as taurobolium...
, Mithras powerfully standing over a bull, about to thrust his sword/dagger into its flesh; this image is remarkably similar to later depictions of Michael standing over the devil, about to thrust a spear into him.
Mithraism had spread beyond Rome throughout the Roman Empire due to its popularity within the Roman Army, and Mithraism became associated with militarism, its penultimate level of initiation being named
soldier. Thus when the Theodosian Decree outlawed all non-Judao-Christian religion, many Mithraeums were converted into chapels and churches dedicated to Michael (some now surviving as church
cryptIn architecture, a crypt is a stone chamber or vault beneath the floor of a church usually used as a chapel or burial vault possibly containing sarcophagi, coffins or relics....
s), since Michael, as a warrior, was a suitable choice for buildings that had previously been heavily connected to military use; the oldest shrine dedicated to Michael in Western Europe is the
Sanctuary of Monte Sant'AngeloThe Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo sul Gargano, sometimes called simply Monte Gargano, is a Catholic sanctuary on Mount Gargano, Italy, part of the commune of Monte Sant'Angelo, in the province of Foggia, northern Apulia ....
, which is architecturally identical to a Mithraeum internally, and it was said in early Christianity to have been founded after an
apparition of Michael that is remarkably similar to the tauroctony of Mithras. According to many secular historians, as a result of the previous popularity of Mithraism, and some of its imagery, became transferred to Michael, leading to his popularity in the mediaeval era.
Demons
In most ancient cultures, the depiction of demons was usually as sinister
chimeraIn Greek mythology, the Chimera was a monstrous fire-breathing creature of Lycia in Asia Minor, composed of the parts of multiple animals: upon the body of a lioness with a tail that terminated in a snake's head, the head of a goat arose on her back at the center of her spine...
, or as creatures similar in appearance to more positive deities, or to humans. However, in Christian imagery, when not being portrayed as human, demons, and particularly the
devilThe Devil is believed in certain religions and folklore to be a powerful, supernatural entity that is the personification of evil and the enemy of God and humankind. The Devil is commonly associated with heretics, infidels, and other unbelievers...
, are usually depicted as humanoid with
goatThe domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the Bovidae family and is closely related to the sheep: both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over three hundred distinct breeds of...
-like limbs and head; even though Christian tradition, and the
apocryphalThe New Testament apocrypha are a number of writings by early Christians that give accounts of Jesus and his teachings, the nature of God, or the teachings of his apostles and of their lives. These writings often have links with those books which are regarded as "canonical"...
Book of EnochThe Book of Enoch is a pseudepigraphic work ascribed to Enoch, the great-grandfather of Noah and son of Jared .While this book today is non-canonical in most Christian churches, it was explicitly quoted in the New Testament and by many of the early Church Fathers...
, identifies the devil as a former
angelAngels are spiritual beings found in many religious traditions. They are broadly viewed as messengers of God, sent to do God's tasks. Traditions vary as to the precise nature and role of these messages and tasks...
, it is only rarely that the devil is depicted as a winged angelic-like being. The goat-like depiction of the devil is sometimes considered by historians to have derived from the biblical story of
AzazelAzazel is an enigmatic name from the Hebrew scriptures and Apocrypha. The word's first appearance is in Leviticus 16, where a goat is designated "for Azazel" and outcast in the desert as part of Yom Kippur.He is considered by many to be a supernatural being mentioned in connection with the ritual...
, something, unidentified apart from name, to whom the annual
scapegoatThe scapegoat was a goat that was driven off into the wilderness as part of the ceremonies of the Day of Atonement, in Judaism during the times of the Temple in Jerusalem...
is sent, hence connecting the undescribed Azazel to goats; though
TalmudThe Talmud is a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs, and history. It is a central text of mainstream Judaism....
ic writers rationalised Azazel as merely being the name of a
cliffIn geography and geology, a cliff is a significant vertical, or near vertical, rock exposure. Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms due to the processes of erosion and weathering that produce them. Cliffs are common on coasts, in mountainous areas, escarpments and along rivers. Cliffs are...
, most secular scholars, and Christian tradition, now see Azazel as having been originally meant to be a demon of some sort. Other historians, however, have argued that the goat imagery originated as a deliberate ploy by early Christianity to demonise their main rival religions, particularly the prominent
Dionysian MysteriesThe Dionysian Mysteries were a ritual which used intoxicants and other trance inducing techniques, such as dance and music, to remove inhibitions and artificial societal constraints, liberating the individual to return to a more natural and primal state...
, whose central figure,
DionysusIn classical mythology, Dionysus or Dionysos is the god of wine, the inspirer of ritual madness and ecstasy, and a major figure of Greek mythology, and one of the twelve Olympians, amongst whom Greek mythology treated him as a late arrival...
, was sometimes depicted with goat horns and was one of the main deities said to have been accompanied by the goat-like
SatyrIn Greek mythology, satyrs are a troop of male companions of Pan and Dionysus — "satyresses" were a late invention of poets — that roamed the woods and mountains...
s, having originally simply been a nature god (before the mysteries surrounding him evolved).
See also
- Christian mythology
Christian mythology is the body of traditional narratives associated with Christianity. Many Christians believe that these narratives are sacred and that they communicate profound truths...
- Germanic Christianity
The Germanic peoples underwent gradual Christianization in the course of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. By the 8th century, most of England and the Frankish Empire was, in principle, Christian, and by AD 1100, Germanic paganism had also ceased to have political influence in...
for the Christianization of the Germanic peoples
- Christianisation
- The Christianised calendar
- Christianised sites
One aspect of Christianisation was the Christianisation of sites that had been pagan. Few Christian churches built in the first half millennium of the established Christian Church were not built upon sites already consecrated as pagan temples or as high places, the church of Santa Maria sopra...
- Christianised rituals
Christianised rituals were among the cultural features of the Mediterranean world that were adapted by the Early Christians, as part of the thorough-going Christianization of pagan culture, which included the landscape and the calendar...