John of Nepomuk
Encyclopedia
John of Nepomuk (c. 1345 – March 20, 1393)
is a national saint
of the Czech Republic
, who was drowned in the Vltava
river at the behest of Wenceslaus, King of the Romans
and King of Bohemia
. Later accounts state that he was the confessor of the queen of Bohemia and refused to divulge the secrets of the confessional. On the basis of this account, John of Nepomuk is considered the first martyr
of the Seal of the Confessional, a patron against calumnies and, because of the manner of his death, a protector from flood
s.
, which belonged to the nearby Cistercian abbey. He was born in the decade 1340-1349, and he first studied at the University of Prague
, then furthered his studies in canon law
at the University of Padua
from 1383 to 1387. In 1393 he was made the vicar-general of Jan of Jenštejn (1348–1400), who was the Archbishop of Prague
from 1378 to 1396. In the same year, on March 20, he was tortured and thrown into the river Vltava
from Charles Bridge
in Prague
at the behest of Wenceslaus, King of the Romans
and King of Bohemia (as Wenceslaus IV).
At issue was the appointment of a new abbot
for the rich and powerful Benedictine
Abbey of Kladruby
; its abbot was a territorial magnate whose resources would be crucial to Wenceslaus in his struggles with nobles. Wenceslaus at the same time was backing the Avignon papacy
, whereas the Archbishop of Prague followed its rival, the pope at Rome. Contrary to the wishes of Wenceslaus, John confirmed the archbishop's candidate for Abbot of Kladruby, and was drowned on the emperor's orders, March 20, 1393.
This account is based on four contemporary documents. The first is the accusation of the king, presented to Pope Boniface IX
on April 23, 1393, by Archbishop John of Jenštejn, who went immediately to Rome together with the new abbot of Kladruby.
A few years later Abbott Ladolf of Sagan lists him in the catalog of Sagan abbots, completed in 1398, as well as in the treatise "De longævo schismate", lib. VII, c. xix.
A further document is the "Chronik des Deutschordens", a chronicle of the Teutonic Order compiled by John of Posilge, who died in 1405.
In the above accusation John of Jenštejn already calls John of Nepomuk, “saint martyr”. In the biography of the bishop, written by his chaplain, John of Nepomuk is described as "gloriosum Christi martyrem miraculisque coruscum;" (in English,) "a glorious martyr of Christ and sparkling with miracles."
Thus, the vicar put to death for defending the laws and the autonomy of the Catholic Church was revered as a saint straight after his death.
The mistake of John of Krumlov crept into the Annales Bohemorum of Wenceslaus Hajek of Liboczan (Václav Hájek z Libočan), the "Bohemian Livy". He suggested that two Jan di Nepomuks may have existed and have been killed by King Wenceslaus. The first one is the queen's confessor, who died in 1383; the other the vicar of the archbishop, who disagreed with the king on the election of the abbot of Kladruby and was drowned in 1393. As Hajek's annals enjoyed a wide success, they influenced all subsequent historians for two centuries, up to the Latin edition, critically annotated by the translator, which considerably reduced Hajek's credit as a reliable historian.
Further and less reliable details about John of Nepomuk come from the annalists of the 17th and 18th centuries. Boleslaus Balbinus, S.J., in his Vita b. Joannis Nepomuceni martyris gives the most rich account.
Although the theory of Hajek of Liboczan has no credit today, some historians believe the vicar's refusal to betray the seal of the confessional might have been the secret reason why Wenceslaus took vengeance on John of Nepomuk as soon as a credible excuse provided the opportunity.
, romantic nationalists
regard him as a Czech martyr to imperial interference, and most historians present him as a victim of a late version of the inveterate investiture controversy
between secular rulers and the Catholic hierarchy.
The connection of John of Nepomuk with the inviolability of the confessional
is part of the transformation of an historical figure into a legend, which can be traced through successive stages. The archbishop
, who hastened to Rome soon after the crime, in his charge against Wenceslaus, called the victim a martyr; in the vita
written a few years later miracles are already recorded, by which the drowned man was discovered. About the middle of the 15th century the statement appears for the first time that the refusal to violate the seal of confession was the cause of John's death. Two decades later (1471), the dean of Prague, Paul Zidek, makes John the queen's confessor. The chronicler Wenceslaus Hajek speaks in 1541 (perhaps due to an incorrect reading of his sources) of two Johns of Nepomuk being drowned; the first as confessor, the second for his confirmation of the abbot.
The legend is especially indebted for its growth to the Jesuit historiographer Boleslaus Balbinus the "Bohemian Pliny,", whose Vita beati Joannis Nepomuceni martyris was published in Prague, 1670. Although the Prague
metropolitan chapter did not accept the biography dedicated to it, "as being frequently destitute of historical foundation and erroneous, a bungling work of mythological rhetoric", Balbinus stuck to it. In 1683 the Charles Bridge
was adorned with a statue of the saint, which has had numerous successors; in 1708 the first church was dedicated to him at Hradec Králové
; a more famous Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk
was founded in 1719.
Meanwhile, in spite of the objection of the Jesuits, the process was inaugurated which ended with his canonization
. On May 31, 1721, he was beatified, and on March 19, 1729, he was canonized under Pope Benedict XIII
. The acts of the process, comprising 500 pages, distinguish two Johns of Nepomuk and sanction the cult of the one who was drowned in 1383 as a martyr of the sacrament of penance.
According to some Protestant sources the figure of St. John Nepomuk is a legend due to Jesuits and its historical kernel is really Jan Hus
, who was metamorphosed from a Bohemian Reformer into a Roman Catholic saint: the Nepomuk story would be based on Wenceslaus Hajek's blending of the Jan who was drowned in 1393 and the Jan
who was burned in 1415. The resemblances are certainly striking, extending to the manner of celebrating their commemorations. But when the Jesuits came to Prague
, the Nepomuk veneration had long been widespread; and the idea of canonization originated in opposition not to the Hussites, but to Protestantism
, as a weapon of the Counter-Reformation
. In the image of the saint which gradually arose, the religious history of Bohemia is reflected.
A coincidental drought in the region a year later helped the legend along; the church convinced the peasants that it represented God's punishment for the killing. Building on that success, they attempted to paint the king even blacker with certain clerical circles spreading reports of John's courage, saying that as confessor to the Queen he had refused to reveal her secrets, and that was why he had been murdered. Belief in John's supernatural powers culminated with the discovery of the saint's supposed tongue when three centuries later his tomb was opened and a piece of reddened tissue fell out of his skull.
of five stars, commemorating the stars that hovered over the Vltava
River on the night of his murder. Other attributes useful to identify his pictures are: a priestly dress, the palm of martyrs, carrying a cross, an angel indicating silence by a finger over the lips. His tomb, a Baroque
monument cast in silver and silver-gilt that was designed by Fischer von Erlach
, stands in St Vitus Cathedral, Prague. A statue of Saint John of Nepomuk has often been erected on bridges in many countries, such as on the Ponte Milvio
in Rome
.
is a national saint
Saint
A saint is a holy person. In various religions, saints are people who are believed to have exceptional holiness.In Christian usage, "saint" refers to any believer who is "in Christ", and in whom Christ dwells, whether in heaven or in earth...
of the Czech Republic
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Poland to the northeast, Slovakia to the east, Austria to the south, and Germany to the west and northwest....
, who was drowned in the Vltava
Vltava
The Vltava is the longest river in the Czech Republic, running north from its source in Šumava through Český Krumlov, České Budějovice, and Prague, merging with the Elbe at Mělník...
river at the behest of Wenceslaus, King of the Romans
Wenceslaus, King of the Romans
Wenceslaus ) was, by election, German King from 1376 and, by inheritance, King of Bohemia from 1378. He was the third Bohemian and second German monarch of the Luxembourg dynasty...
and King of Bohemia
Bohemia
Bohemia is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands. It is located in the contemporary Czech Republic with its capital in Prague...
. Later accounts state that he was the confessor of the queen of Bohemia and refused to divulge the secrets of the confessional. On the basis of this account, John of Nepomuk is considered the first martyr
Martyr
A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for refusing to renounce, or accept, a belief or cause, usually religious.-Meaning:...
of the Seal of the Confessional, a patron against calumnies and, because of the manner of his death, a protector from flood
Flood
A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land. The EU Floods directive defines a flood as a temporary covering by water of land not normally covered by water...
s.
Basic biographical information
Jan Velflín (Welflin, Wölflin) z Pomuku was born in the small market town of Pomuk in Bohemia, later renamed NepomukNepomuk
Nepomuk is a town in the Pilsen Region of the Czech Republic. It lies on the Mihovka River, some to the south-southwest from the region capital of Pilsen....
, which belonged to the nearby Cistercian abbey. He was born in the decade 1340-1349, and he first studied at the University of Prague
Charles University in Prague
Charles University in Prague is the oldest and largest university in the Czech Republic. Founded in 1348, it was the first university in Central Europe and is also considered the earliest German university...
, then furthered his studies in canon law
Canon law (Catholic Church)
The canon law of the Catholic Church, is a fully developed legal system, with all the necessary elements: courts, lawyers, judges, a fully articulated legal code and principles of legal interpretation. It lacks the necessary binding force present in most modern day legal systems. The academic...
at the University of Padua
Padua
Padua is a city and comune in the Veneto, northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Padua and the economic and communications hub of the area. Padua's population is 212,500 . The city is sometimes included, with Venice and Treviso, in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, having...
from 1383 to 1387. In 1393 he was made the vicar-general of Jan of Jenštejn (1348–1400), who was the Archbishop of Prague
Archbishop of Prague
The following is a list of bishops and archbishops of Prague. The bishopric of Prague was established in 973, and elevated to an archbishopric on 30 April 1344. The today's Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Prague is the continual successor of the bishoprie established in 973...
from 1378 to 1396. In the same year, on March 20, he was tortured and thrown into the river Vltava
Vltava
The Vltava is the longest river in the Czech Republic, running north from its source in Šumava through Český Krumlov, České Budějovice, and Prague, merging with the Elbe at Mělník...
from Charles Bridge
Charles Bridge
The Charles Bridge is a famous historic bridge that crosses the Vltava river in Prague, Czech Republic. Its construction started in 1357 under the auspices of King Charles IV, and finished in the beginning of the 15th century...
in Prague
Prague
Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of over 2.3 million...
at the behest of Wenceslaus, King of the Romans
Wenceslaus, King of the Romans
Wenceslaus ) was, by election, German King from 1376 and, by inheritance, King of Bohemia from 1378. He was the third Bohemian and second German monarch of the Luxembourg dynasty...
and King of Bohemia (as Wenceslaus IV).
At issue was the appointment of a new abbot
Abbot
The word abbot, meaning father, is a title given to the head of a monastery in various traditions, including Christianity. The office may also be given as an honorary title to a clergyman who is not actually the head of a monastery...
for the rich and powerful Benedictine
Benedictine
Benedictine refers to the spirituality and consecrated life in accordance with the Rule of St Benedict, written by Benedict of Nursia in the sixth century for the cenobitic communities he founded in central Italy. The most notable of these is Monte Cassino, the first monastery founded by Benedict...
Abbey of Kladruby
Kladruby (Tachov District)
Kladruby is a town in the Czech Republic, in the region of Plzeň, near the town Stříbro.The Abbey of Kladruby is a large Benedictine monastery first cited 1115...
; its abbot was a territorial magnate whose resources would be crucial to Wenceslaus in his struggles with nobles. Wenceslaus at the same time was backing the Avignon papacy
Avignon Papacy
The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven Popes resided in Avignon, in modern-day France. This arose from the conflict between the Papacy and the French crown....
, whereas the Archbishop of Prague followed its rival, the pope at Rome. Contrary to the wishes of Wenceslaus, John confirmed the archbishop's candidate for Abbot of Kladruby, and was drowned on the emperor's orders, March 20, 1393.
This account is based on four contemporary documents. The first is the accusation of the king, presented to Pope Boniface IX
Pope Boniface IX
Pope Boniface IX , born Piero Tomacelli, was the second Roman Pope of the Western Schism from November 2, 1389, until October 1, 1404...
on April 23, 1393, by Archbishop John of Jenštejn, who went immediately to Rome together with the new abbot of Kladruby.
A few years later Abbott Ladolf of Sagan lists him in the catalog of Sagan abbots, completed in 1398, as well as in the treatise "De longævo schismate", lib. VII, c. xix.
A further document is the "Chronik des Deutschordens", a chronicle of the Teutonic Order compiled by John of Posilge, who died in 1405.
In the above accusation John of Jenštejn already calls John of Nepomuk, “saint martyr”. In the biography of the bishop, written by his chaplain, John of Nepomuk is described as "gloriosum Christi martyrem miraculisque coruscum;" (in English,) "a glorious martyr of Christ and sparkling with miracles."
Thus, the vicar put to death for defending the laws and the autonomy of the Catholic Church was revered as a saint straight after his death.
Later accounts
Much additional biographical information comes from Bohemian annalists who wrote 60 or more years after the events they recount. Although they may have taken advantage of sources not available today, their contribution is considered legendary by many historians, particularly by the Protestant ones.- In his chronicle Chronica regum Romanorum, completed in 1459, Thomas Ebendorfer (d. 1464) states that King Wenceslaus had drowned the confessor of his wife, indicated as Magister Jan, because he had stated that only the one who rules properly deserves the name of king and had refused to betray the seal of Confession. This is the first source to mention this refusal as the true motivation of the condemnation of John of Nepomuk.
- In his Instructions for the King, completed in 1471, Paul Zidek provides further details. King Venceslaus was afraid that his wife had a lover. As she was used to confessing to Magister Jan, he ordered him to tell the name of the lover, but to no avail. Therefore the king ordered John to be drowned. Note that in these chronicles neither the date of the events, nor the name of the queen is mentioned.
- In 1483 John of Krumlov, dean of St. Vitus cathedral, states that the Saint died in 1383 (one decade earlier than the recognized date, maybe due to a copying error). As the first wife of Venceslaus died in 1386, this change of date also causes uncertainty about the name of the queen.
The mistake of John of Krumlov crept into the Annales Bohemorum of Wenceslaus Hajek of Liboczan (Václav Hájek z Libočan), the "Bohemian Livy". He suggested that two Jan di Nepomuks may have existed and have been killed by King Wenceslaus. The first one is the queen's confessor, who died in 1383; the other the vicar of the archbishop, who disagreed with the king on the election of the abbot of Kladruby and was drowned in 1393. As Hajek's annals enjoyed a wide success, they influenced all subsequent historians for two centuries, up to the Latin edition, critically annotated by the translator, which considerably reduced Hajek's credit as a reliable historian.
Further and less reliable details about John of Nepomuk come from the annalists of the 17th and 18th centuries. Boleslaus Balbinus, S.J., in his Vita b. Joannis Nepomuceni martyris gives the most rich account.
Although the theory of Hajek of Liboczan has no credit today, some historians believe the vicar's refusal to betray the seal of the confessional might have been the secret reason why Wenceslaus took vengeance on John of Nepomuk as soon as a credible excuse provided the opportunity.
A controversial figure
Catholics see John of Nepomuk as a martyr to the cause of defending the Seal of the ConfessionalSeal of the Confessional
In the Roman Catholic Church, the Seal of Confession is the absolute duty of priests not to disclose anything that they learn from penitents during the course of the Sacrament of Penance.-History:...
, romantic nationalists
Romantic nationalism
Romantic nationalism is the form of nationalism in which the state derives its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs...
regard him as a Czech martyr to imperial interference, and most historians present him as a victim of a late version of the inveterate investiture controversy
Investiture Controversy
The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was the most significant conflict between Church and state in medieval Europe. In the 11th and 12th centuries, a series of Popes challenged the authority of European monarchies over control of appointments, or investitures, of church officials such...
between secular rulers and the Catholic hierarchy.
The connection of John of Nepomuk with the inviolability of the confessional
Priest-penitent privilege
The priest–penitent privilege, also known as the clergy privilege, clergy–penitent privilege, confessional privilege, and ecclesiastical privilege, is an application of the principle of privileged communication that protects the contents of communications between a member of the clergy and a...
is part of the transformation of an historical figure into a legend, which can be traced through successive stages. The archbishop
Archbishop
An archbishop is a bishop of higher rank, but not of higher sacramental order above that of the three orders of deacon, priest , and bishop...
, who hastened to Rome soon after the crime, in his charge against Wenceslaus, called the victim a martyr; in the vita
Hagiography
Hagiography is the study of saints.From the Greek and , it refers literally to writings on the subject of such holy people, and specifically to the biographies of saints and ecclesiastical leaders. The term hagiology, the study of hagiography, is also current in English, though less common...
written a few years later miracles are already recorded, by which the drowned man was discovered. About the middle of the 15th century the statement appears for the first time that the refusal to violate the seal of confession was the cause of John's death. Two decades later (1471), the dean of Prague, Paul Zidek, makes John the queen's confessor. The chronicler Wenceslaus Hajek speaks in 1541 (perhaps due to an incorrect reading of his sources) of two Johns of Nepomuk being drowned; the first as confessor, the second for his confirmation of the abbot.
The legend is especially indebted for its growth to the Jesuit historiographer Boleslaus Balbinus the "Bohemian Pliny,", whose Vita beati Joannis Nepomuceni martyris was published in Prague, 1670. Although the Prague
Prague
Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of over 2.3 million...
metropolitan chapter did not accept the biography dedicated to it, "as being frequently destitute of historical foundation and erroneous, a bungling work of mythological rhetoric", Balbinus stuck to it. In 1683 the Charles Bridge
Charles Bridge
The Charles Bridge is a famous historic bridge that crosses the Vltava river in Prague, Czech Republic. Its construction started in 1357 under the auspices of King Charles IV, and finished in the beginning of the 15th century...
was adorned with a statue of the saint, which has had numerous successors; in 1708 the first church was dedicated to him at Hradec Králové
Hradec Králové
Hradec Králové is a city of the Czech Republic, in the Hradec Králové Region of Bohemia. The city's economy is based on food-processing technology, photochemical, and electronics manufacture. Traditional industries include musical instrument manufacturing – the best known being PETROF pianos...
; a more famous Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk
Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk
The Pilgrimage Church of St John of Nepomuk at Zelená Hora is a religious building in Žďár nad Sázavou, Czechia, near the border between Bohemia and Moravia...
was founded in 1719.
Meanwhile, in spite of the objection of the Jesuits, the process was inaugurated which ended with his canonization
Canonization
Canonization is the act by which a Christian church declares a deceased person to be a saint, upon which declaration the person is included in the canon, or list, of recognized saints. Originally, individuals were recognized as saints without any formal process...
. On May 31, 1721, he was beatified, and on March 19, 1729, he was canonized under Pope Benedict XIII
Pope Benedict XIII
-Footnotes:...
. The acts of the process, comprising 500 pages, distinguish two Johns of Nepomuk and sanction the cult of the one who was drowned in 1383 as a martyr of the sacrament of penance.
According to some Protestant sources the figure of St. John Nepomuk is a legend due to Jesuits and its historical kernel is really Jan Hus
Jan Hus
Jan Hus , often referred to in English as John Hus or John Huss, was a Czech priest, philosopher, reformer, and master at Charles University in Prague...
, who was metamorphosed from a Bohemian Reformer into a Roman Catholic saint: the Nepomuk story would be based on Wenceslaus Hajek's blending of the Jan who was drowned in 1393 and the Jan
Jan Hus
Jan Hus , often referred to in English as John Hus or John Huss, was a Czech priest, philosopher, reformer, and master at Charles University in Prague...
who was burned in 1415. The resemblances are certainly striking, extending to the manner of celebrating their commemorations. But when the Jesuits came to Prague
Prague
Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of over 2.3 million...
, the Nepomuk veneration had long been widespread; and the idea of canonization originated in opposition not to the Hussites, but to Protestantism
Protestantism
Protestantism is one of the three major groupings within Christianity. It is a movement that began in Germany in the early 16th century as a reaction against medieval Roman Catholic doctrines and practices, especially in regards to salvation, justification, and ecclesiology.The doctrines of the...
, as a weapon of the Counter-Reformation
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation was the period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 as a response to the Protestant Reformation.The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, composed of four major elements:#Ecclesiastical or...
. In the image of the saint which gradually arose, the religious history of Bohemia is reflected.
A coincidental drought in the region a year later helped the legend along; the church convinced the peasants that it represented God's punishment for the killing. Building on that success, they attempted to paint the king even blacker with certain clerical circles spreading reports of John's courage, saying that as confessor to the Queen he had refused to reveal her secrets, and that was why he had been murdered. Belief in John's supernatural powers culminated with the discovery of the saint's supposed tongue when three centuries later his tomb was opened and a piece of reddened tissue fell out of his skull.
The cult
The figure of Saint John of Nepomuk is often encountered in Central and Eastern Europe, including the Czech Republic, Italy, Germany, Poland and Lithuania. He is usually portrayed with a haloHalo (religious iconography)
A halo is a ring of light that surrounds a person in art. They have been used in the iconography of many religions to indicate holy or sacred figures, and have at various periods also been used in images of rulers or heroes...
of five stars, commemorating the stars that hovered over the Vltava
Vltava
The Vltava is the longest river in the Czech Republic, running north from its source in Šumava through Český Krumlov, České Budějovice, and Prague, merging with the Elbe at Mělník...
River on the night of his murder. Other attributes useful to identify his pictures are: a priestly dress, the palm of martyrs, carrying a cross, an angel indicating silence by a finger over the lips. His tomb, a Baroque
Baroque
The Baroque is a period and the style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, literature, dance, and music...
monument cast in silver and silver-gilt that was designed by Fischer von Erlach
Fischer von Erlach
Fischer von Erlach:* Simon Vischer , a bookseller** Johann Baptist Fischer , a sculptor ∞ Anna Maria Erlacher née Khrätschmair...
, stands in St Vitus Cathedral, Prague. A statue of Saint John of Nepomuk has often been erected on bridges in many countries, such as on the Ponte Milvio
Ponte Milvio
The Milvian Bridge is a bridge over the Tiber in northern Rome, Italy. It was an economically and strategically important bridge in the era of the Roman Empire and was the site of the famous Battle of Milvian Bridge....
in Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
.
Popular Culture
The reanimated corpse of Saint John of Nepomuk appears in a 2011 story from the webcomic The Sorrowful Putto of Prague http://www.theputto.com/comic/?p=335Music
John of Nepomuk mass in G-major | "Johannes Nepomuk Messe in G-Dur" by Gerald SpitznerExternal links
- The "official" page of John of Nepomuk
- Catholic Encyclopedia (1910): "St. John Nepomucene" This provides a Catholic point of view
- Christian Classics Ethereal Library at Calvin College: "John of Nepomuk" This provides a Protestant point of view. It was also the source of the initial version of this article.
- Zdarns.cz