George Bogle, diplomat
Encyclopedia
George Bogle was a Scottish adventurer and diplomat, the first to establish diplomatic relations with Tibet
and to attempt recognition by the Chinese
Qing Empire. His mission is still used today as a reference point in debates between China and Tibetan independence activists.
George Bogle was the second son of a wealthy Glasgow
merchant, George Bogle of Daldowie
, one of the Tobacco Lords
and Anne Sinclair, a gentlewoman
directly descended from James I and James II of Scotland. His father had extensive connections in the Scottish landed, commercial, and governmental elite, as well as trading contacts across the British Empire
.
The Scots gentry
to whom he belonged were in turn, in the 18th century, a key feature in the British state. Their political allegiance was often managed through patronage
. In particular, Henry Dundas was able to offer the younger sons of gentry
opportunities in India
. This was to be a significant feature in George’s career.
eventually had a plantation
in Virginia
while his other brother, Robert Bogle
, after the failure of a business adventure in London
(the importing house of “Bogle and Scott”), established a cotton plantation in Grenada
. Both intimately involved negro slaves
. His four sisters married into their gentry network of traders, lairds and lawyers. His mother died when he was thirteen. The following year he matriculated at Edinburgh University where he studied Logic
. He completed his education, when he was 18, at a private academy in Enfield
, near London
. Following this, he spent six months travelling in France. His brother Robert then took him on as a clerk in his London offices of Bogle and Scott where he spent four years as a cashier.
in the East India Company
(EIC). In 1770, at the height of the Bengal Famine
, he landed in Calcutta, the centre of British power in India. His extensive letters home, as well as his journal entries, show him to have been a lively, entertaining and perceptive writer. The comments of his colleagues and others show him to have been an agreeable, indeed playful - if sometimes riotous - companion. These qualities no doubt influenced Warren Hastings
, the Governor-General
of the EIC, when he appointed him his private secretary. His letters show that he was aware of the suspicion of corruption, and had some misgivings about it - Hastings would soon be impeached for corruption
- he was determined to make his fortune come what may.
of Cooch Behar
to the north of Bengal
, whose territory had been invaded by the Zhidar the Druk Desi
of Bhutan
. Hastings agreed to help on the condition that Cooch Behar recognize British sovereignty. The Raja agreed and with the help of British troops they pushed the Bhutanese out of the Duars
and into the foothills in 1773.
Zhidar, the Druk Desi, returned to face civil war at home. His opponent Jigme Senge, the regent for the seven year old Shabdrung
(the Bhutanese equivalent of the Dalai Lama), had supported popular discontent. Zhidar was unpopular for his corvee
tax (he sought to rebuild a major dzong in one year, an unreasonable goal), as well as for his overtures to the Manchu Emperors which threatened Bhutanese independence. Zhidar was soon overthrown and forced to flee to Tibet, where he was imprisoned by the Panchen Lama. A new Druk Desi, Kunga Rinchen, was installed, and with him a new opportunity for British diplomacy opened up.
Hastings lost no time in appointing Bogle to undertake a diplomatic and fact-finding mission “to chart the unknown territory beyond the northern borders of Bengal”, with a view to opening up trade with Tibet
and possibly establishing a back-door trade relationship with the Chinese
Qing Empire who severely controlled foreign trade at Canton
(Guangzhou).
Bogle’s expedition set out in 1774 and consisted of himself, an army surgeon named Alexander Hamilton, and Purangir Gosain (an agent of the Sixth Panchen Lama, the effective ruler of Tibet), as well as a retinue of servants. Despite warnings from the Chinese government and the Pachen Lama that he was not allowed to enter Tibet, he made use of the recent political instability in Bhutan and tension between the Panchen Lama and the regent for the 7th Dalai Lama to win access to Tibet where he was brought before the Panchen Lama in Shigatse
. Bogle made a favorable impression on the Sixth Panchen Lama and spent six months overwintering in his palaces learning what he could of Tibetan culture and politics. Bogle was struck by the experience, noting in his journal, When I look upon the time I have spent among the Hills it appears like a fairy dream.' It may have been the publication of accounts of his journey which established the myth of Tibet as Shangri-la
. Bogle helped the Panchen Lama compose his still famous Geography of India
.
Returning to India Bogle fulfilled the Panchen Lama's request to establish a temple on the banks of the Ganges, not far from the East India Company headquarters, where Buddhist monks could return to their spiritual roots in India.
Although the ultimate goal of establishing a trade route to China was not met, a long-lasting relationship was formed between the British and the Tibetans. The mission to Tibet
was viewed as a success, and was commemorated by a 1775 portrait of Bogle being presented (in Tibetan gowns) to the Panchen Lama. This portrait, by Tilly Kettle
, a British painter who worked in Calcutta, was reputedly presented by Hastings to King George III and it is now in the Royal Collection
.
of the Manchu
Qing Dynasty
, an astute but aloof ruler who regarded all the world as tributaries. In 1780, Palden Yeshe
visited Peking
(Beijing) where he came close to gaining a passport for Bogle. The Emperor presented him with a golden urn for use in ceremonial lotteries and the goodwill seemed to suggest that a passport would be issued. However, he was struck down by smallpox and died that same year. (It was not until 1793, that a British envoy ) Lord Macartney was, very sceptically, received by the Chinese Emperor).
, Calcutta . He had never married, but left behind a son George, and two daughters, Martha and Mary. According to family lore, the girls' mother was Tibetan. The two girls were sent back to Daldowie House
, where they were brought up by Bogle's family and eventually married Scotsmen.
. Das translated and published parts of the Tibetan biography of the Third Panchen Lama, including descriptions of his friendship with Bogle. Some critics have ascribed Bogle and Das as major inspirations for Rudyard Kipling
's novel Kim
, especially in Kipling's use of the title "Teshoo Lama" (an alternate title of the Panchen Lama typically used by Bogle and other British sources of the time).
The Bogle mission has echoes today. The Chinese government has used it on official websites to suggest that Britain recognised Chinese sovereignty over Tibet. They portray the meeting of the Panchen Lama
as one where he kowtow'ed
in submission to China. The Tibetans suggest it was a meeting between a pupil (the Emperor) and a revered master (the Lama
).
According to the Asia Times
, in 1995 the search for the 11th Panchen Lama
culminated with Beijing and the Dalai Lama proclaiming rival child candidates, Gyaincain Norbu and Gedhun Choekyi Nyima
respectively, with Chinese officials using Qianlong's urn as a symbol of legitimacy and sovereignty, placing it at the very heart of the ceremony.
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
and to attempt recognition by the Chinese
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
Qing Empire. His mission is still used today as a reference point in debates between China and Tibetan independence activists.
George Bogle was the second son of a wealthy Glasgow
Glasgow
Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland and third most populous in the United Kingdom. The city is situated on the River Clyde in the country's west central lowlands...
merchant, George Bogle of Daldowie
George Bogle of Daldowie
George Bogle, of Daldowie, Junior was a Virginia merchant, a West India trader, and a considerable citizen of Glasgow, where he was one of the Tobacco Lords As well as trading in tobacco he dealt in other Caribbean commodities, such as sugar...
, one of the Tobacco Lords
Tobacco Lords
The Tobacco Lords were Glasgow merchants who, in the 18th Century made enormous fortunes by trading in tobacco from Great Britain's American Colonies....
and Anne Sinclair, a gentlewoman
Gentry
Gentry denotes "well-born and well-bred people" of high social class, especially in the past....
directly descended from James I and James II of Scotland. His father had extensive connections in the Scottish landed, commercial, and governmental elite, as well as trading contacts across the British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
.
The Scots gentry
Gentry
Gentry denotes "well-born and well-bred people" of high social class, especially in the past....
to whom he belonged were in turn, in the 18th century, a key feature in the British state. Their political allegiance was often managed through patronage
Patronage
Patronage is the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows to another. In the history of art, arts patronage refers to the support that kings or popes have provided to musicians, painters, and sculptors...
. In particular, Henry Dundas was able to offer the younger sons of gentry
Gentry
Gentry denotes "well-born and well-bred people" of high social class, especially in the past....
opportunities in India
British East India Company
The East India Company was an early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and China...
. This was to be a significant feature in George’s career.
Education and early career
He was born in 1746, the youngest of three brothers. His elder brother John BogleJohn Bogle
John Clifton "Jack" Bogle is the founder and retired CEO of The Vanguard Group. He is known for his 1999 book Common Sense on Mutual Funds: New Imperatives for the Intelligent Investor, which became a bestseller and is considered a classic.-Early life and education:Bogle was born in in Verona, New...
eventually had a plantation
Plantation
A plantation is a long artificially established forest, farm or estate, where crops are grown for sale, often in distant markets rather than for local on-site consumption...
in Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...
while his other brother, Robert Bogle
Robert Bogle
Robert John "Bob" Bogle is a former provincial level politician from Alberta, Canada. He served as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta from 1975 to 1993.-Political career:...
, after the failure of a business adventure in London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
(the importing house of “Bogle and Scott”), established a cotton plantation in Grenada
Grenada
Grenada is an island country and Commonwealth Realm consisting of the island of Grenada and six smaller islands at the southern end of the Grenadines in the southeastern Caribbean Sea...
. Both intimately involved negro slaves
Triangular trade
Triangular trade, or triangle trade, is a historical term indicating among three ports or regions. Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has export commodities that are not required in the region from which its major imports come...
. His four sisters married into their gentry network of traders, lairds and lawyers. His mother died when he was thirteen. The following year he matriculated at Edinburgh University where he studied Logic
Logic
In philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...
. He completed his education, when he was 18, at a private academy in Enfield
Enfield Town
Enfield Town is the historic town centre of Enfield, formerly in the county of Middlesex and now in the London Borough of Enfield. It is north north-east of Charing Cross...
, near London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
. Following this, he spent six months travelling in France. His brother Robert then took him on as a clerk in his London offices of Bogle and Scott where he spent four years as a cashier.
India
Using the family network, he secured an appointment as a WriterWriter
A writer is a person who produces literature, such as novels, short stories, plays, screenplays, poetry, or other literary art. Skilled writers are able to use language to portray ideas and images....
in the East India Company
British East India Company
The East India Company was an early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and China...
(EIC). In 1770, at the height of the Bengal Famine
Bengal famine of 1770
The Bengal famine of 1770 was a catastrophic famine between 1769 and 1773 that affected the lower Gangetic plain of India...
, he landed in Calcutta, the centre of British power in India. His extensive letters home, as well as his journal entries, show him to have been a lively, entertaining and perceptive writer. The comments of his colleagues and others show him to have been an agreeable, indeed playful - if sometimes riotous - companion. These qualities no doubt influenced Warren Hastings
Warren Hastings
Warren Hastings PC was the first Governor-General of India, from 1773 to 1785. He was famously accused of corruption in an impeachment in 1787, but was acquitted in 1795. He was made a Privy Councillor in 1814.-Early life:...
, the Governor-General
Governor-General
A Governor-General, is a vice-regal person of a monarch in an independent realm or a major colonial circonscription. Depending on the political arrangement of the territory, a Governor General can be a governor of high rank, or a principal governor ranking above "ordinary" governors.- Current uses...
of the EIC, when he appointed him his private secretary. His letters show that he was aware of the suspicion of corruption, and had some misgivings about it - Hastings would soon be impeached for corruption
Impeachment of Warren Hastings
The Impeachment of Warren Hastings was a failed attempt to impeach the former Governor-General of India Warren Hastings in the Parliament of Great Britain between 1788 and 1795. Hastings was accused of misconduct during his time in Calcutta particularly relating to mismanagement and personal...
- he was determined to make his fortune come what may.
Envoy to Bhutan and Tibet
In 1773, Hastings responded to an appeal for help from the RajaRaja
Raja is an Indian term for a monarch, or princely ruler of the Kshatriya varna...
of Cooch Behar
Cooch Behar
Cooch Behar is the district headquarters and the largest city of Cooch Behar District in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is situated in the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas and located at . Cooch Behar is the only planned town in North Bengal region with remnants of royal heritage...
to the north of Bengal
Bengal
Bengal is a historical and geographical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Today, it is mainly divided between the sovereign land of People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous...
, whose territory had been invaded by the Zhidar the Druk Desi
Druk Desi
The Druk Desi ;The original title is Dzongkha: སྡེ་སྲིད་ཕྱག་མཛོད་; Wylie: sde-srid phyag-mdzod. was the title of the secular rulers of Bhutan under the dual system of government between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries...
of Bhutan
Bhutan
Bhutan , officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked state in South Asia, located at the eastern end of the Himalayas and bordered to the south, east and west by the Republic of India and to the north by the People's Republic of China...
. Hastings agreed to help on the condition that Cooch Behar recognize British sovereignty. The Raja agreed and with the help of British troops they pushed the Bhutanese out of the Duars
Duars
The Dooars or Duars are the floodplains and foothills of the eastern Himalayas in North-East India around Bhutan. Duar means door in Assamese, Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Magahi and Bengali languages, and the region forms the gateway to Bhutan from India. There were 18 passages or gateways through...
and into the foothills in 1773.
Zhidar, the Druk Desi, returned to face civil war at home. His opponent Jigme Senge, the regent for the seven year old Shabdrung
Shabdrung
Shabdrung , was a title used when referring to or addressing great lamas in Tibet, particularly those who held a hereditary lineage...
(the Bhutanese equivalent of the Dalai Lama), had supported popular discontent. Zhidar was unpopular for his corvee
Corvée
Corvée is unfree labour, often unpaid, that is required of people of lower social standing and imposed on them by the state or a superior . The corvée was the earliest and most widespread form of taxation, which can be traced back to the beginning of civilization...
tax (he sought to rebuild a major dzong in one year, an unreasonable goal), as well as for his overtures to the Manchu Emperors which threatened Bhutanese independence. Zhidar was soon overthrown and forced to flee to Tibet, where he was imprisoned by the Panchen Lama. A new Druk Desi, Kunga Rinchen, was installed, and with him a new opportunity for British diplomacy opened up.
Hastings lost no time in appointing Bogle to undertake a diplomatic and fact-finding mission “to chart the unknown territory beyond the northern borders of Bengal”, with a view to opening up trade with Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
and possibly establishing a back-door trade relationship with the Chinese
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
Qing Empire who severely controlled foreign trade at Canton
Guangzhou
Guangzhou , known historically as Canton or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of the Guangdong province in the People's Republic of China. Located in southern China on the Pearl River, about north-northwest of Hong Kong, Guangzhou is a key national transportation hub and trading port...
(Guangzhou).
Bogle’s expedition set out in 1774 and consisted of himself, an army surgeon named Alexander Hamilton, and Purangir Gosain (an agent of the Sixth Panchen Lama, the effective ruler of Tibet), as well as a retinue of servants. Despite warnings from the Chinese government and the Pachen Lama that he was not allowed to enter Tibet, he made use of the recent political instability in Bhutan and tension between the Panchen Lama and the regent for the 7th Dalai Lama to win access to Tibet where he was brought before the Panchen Lama in Shigatse
Shigatse
Shigatse is a county-level city and the second largest city in Tibet Autonomous Region , People's Republic of China, with a population of 92000, about southwest of Lhasa and northwest of Gyantse...
. Bogle made a favorable impression on the Sixth Panchen Lama and spent six months overwintering in his palaces learning what he could of Tibetan culture and politics. Bogle was struck by the experience, noting in his journal, When I look upon the time I have spent among the Hills it appears like a fairy dream.' It may have been the publication of accounts of his journey which established the myth of Tibet as Shangri-la
Shangri-La
Shangri-La is a fictional place described in the 1933 novel Lost Horizon by British author James Hilton. Hilton describes Shangri-La as a mystical, harmonious valley, gently guided from a lamasery, enclosed in the western end of the Kunlun Mountains...
. Bogle helped the Panchen Lama compose his still famous Geography of India
Geography of India
The geography of India describes the physical features of India, a country in South Asia, that lies entirely on the Indian Plate in the northern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate. The country lies to the north of the equator between 8°4' and 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east...
.
Returning to India Bogle fulfilled the Panchen Lama's request to establish a temple on the banks of the Ganges, not far from the East India Company headquarters, where Buddhist monks could return to their spiritual roots in India.
Although the ultimate goal of establishing a trade route to China was not met, a long-lasting relationship was formed between the British and the Tibetans. The mission to Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
was viewed as a success, and was commemorated by a 1775 portrait of Bogle being presented (in Tibetan gowns) to the Panchen Lama. This portrait, by Tilly Kettle
Tilly Kettle
Tilly Kettle was a portrait painter and the first English painter to work in India. He was born in London, the son of a coach painter, in a family that had been members of the Brewers' Company of freemen for five generations...
, a British painter who worked in Calcutta, was reputedly presented by Hastings to King George III and it is now in the Royal Collection
Royal Collection
The Royal Collection is the art collection of the British Royal Family. It is property of the monarch as sovereign, but is held in trust for her successors and the nation. It contains over 7,000 paintings, 40,000 watercolours and drawings, and about 150,000 old master prints, as well as historical...
.
Overtures to China
The hopes for a breakthrough in China rested on using the Lama as an intermediary with the Qianlong EmperorQianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1735 to 8 February 1796...
of the Manchu
Manchu
The Manchu people or Man are an ethnic minority of China who originated in Manchuria . During their rise in the 17th century, with the help of the Ming dynasty rebels , they came to power in China and founded the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which...
Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
, an astute but aloof ruler who regarded all the world as tributaries. In 1780, Palden Yeshe
Lobsang Palden Yeshe
Lobsang Palden Yeshe was the Sixth Panchen Lama of Tashilhunpo Monastery in Tibet. Lobsang Palden Yeshe was the elder stepbrother of the 10th Shamarpa, Mipam Chödrup Gyamtso ....
visited Peking
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
(Beijing) where he came close to gaining a passport for Bogle. The Emperor presented him with a golden urn for use in ceremonial lotteries and the goodwill seemed to suggest that a passport would be issued. However, he was struck down by smallpox and died that same year. (It was not until 1793, that a British envoy ) Lord Macartney was, very sceptically, received by the Chinese Emperor).
Death
Bogle died, probably of cholera, on April 3, 1781., and was buried in South Park Street CemeterySouth Park Street Cemetery
South Park Street Cemetery is located on Mother Teresa Sarani, Kolkata, India. The road used to be called Park Street, and prior to that Burial Ground Road....
, Calcutta . He had never married, but left behind a son George, and two daughters, Martha and Mary. According to family lore, the girls' mother was Tibetan. The two girls were sent back to Daldowie House
Daldowie
The lands of Daldowie lie astride the River Clyde on the south and the North Calder Water to the east, and stretch to the present area of Baillieston in the north...
, where they were brought up by Bogle's family and eventually married Scotsmen.
Legacy of Bogle’s mission
Bogle's diary and travel notes were published in 1876, providing a partial impetus for the Tibetan journeys of Sarat Chandra DasSarat Chandra Das
Sarat Chandra Das was an Indian scholar of Tibetan language and culture most noted for his two journeys to Tibet in 1879 and in 1881 - 1882-Biography:...
. Das translated and published parts of the Tibetan biography of the Third Panchen Lama, including descriptions of his friendship with Bogle. Some critics have ascribed Bogle and Das as major inspirations for Rudyard Kipling
Rudyard Kipling
Joseph Rudyard Kipling was an English poet, short-story writer, and novelist chiefly remembered for his celebration of British imperialism, tales and poems of British soldiers in India, and his tales for children. Kipling received the 1907 Nobel Prize for Literature...
's novel Kim
Kim (novel)
Kim is a picaresque novel by Rudyard Kipling. It was first published serially in McClure's Magazine from December 1900 to October 1901 as well as in Cassell's Magazine from January to November 1901, and first published in book form by Macmillan & Co. Ltd in October 1901...
, especially in Kipling's use of the title "Teshoo Lama" (an alternate title of the Panchen Lama typically used by Bogle and other British sources of the time).
The Bogle mission has echoes today. The Chinese government has used it on official websites to suggest that Britain recognised Chinese sovereignty over Tibet. They portray the meeting of the Panchen Lama
Panchen Lama
The Panchen Lama , or Bainqên Erdê'ni , is the highest ranking Lama after the Dalai Lama in the Gelugpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism...
as one where he kowtow'ed
Kowtow
Kowtow is the act of deep respect shown by kneeling and bowing so low as to have one's head touching the ground. An alternative Chinese term is ketou, however the meaning is somewhat altered: kòu originally meant "knock with reverence", whereas kē has the general meaning of "touch upon ".In Han...
in submission to China. The Tibetans suggest it was a meeting between a pupil (the Emperor) and a revered master (the Lama
Lama
Lama is a title for a Tibetan teacher of the Dharma. The name is similar to the Sanskrit term guru .Historically, the term was used for venerated spiritual masters or heads of monasteries...
).
According to the Asia Times
Asia Times
Asia Times was a newspaper launched in Thailand by Thai tycoon Sondhi Limthongkul in 1995. The newspaper hired talent from around the world to produce a regional English-language newspaper....
, in 1995 the search for the 11th Panchen Lama
11th Panchen Lama
The 11th Panchen Lama controversy is a dispute about the current legitimate holder of the Panchen Lama title, a political and religious leadership position in Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism. After the death of the 10th Panchen Lama, a dispute between the Chinese leadership and the exiled 14th Dalai...
culminated with Beijing and the Dalai Lama proclaiming rival child candidates, Gyaincain Norbu and Gedhun Choekyi Nyima
Gedhun Choekyi Nyima
Gedhun Choekyi Nyima is, according to the 14th Dalai Lama, the eleventh Panchen Lama of Tibetan Buddhism. He was born in Lhari County, Tibet. On May 14, 1995, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima was named the 11th Panchen Lama by the 14th Dalai Lama...
respectively, with Chinese officials using Qianlong's urn as a symbol of legitimacy and sovereignty, placing it at the very heart of the ceremony.
See Also
Mitchell Library Glasgow Special Collections Bogle Papers, 1725-80 [letter-book and correspondence of the firm Bogle & Scott, tobacco merchants]External links
- http://www.rc.umd.edu/praxis/containment/teltscher/teltscher.html in which Kate Teltscher entertainingly analyses Bogle’s letters.
- http://atimes.com/atimes/China/HH19Ad02.html Asia Times review of Teltscher’s book.
- http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/stecit/stecit14009.htm Brief entry about George Bogle's father (George Bogle of DaldowieGeorge Bogle of DaldowieGeorge Bogle, of Daldowie, Junior was a Virginia merchant, a West India trader, and a considerable citizen of Glasgow, where he was one of the Tobacco Lords As well as trading in tobacco he dealt in other Caribbean commodities, such as sugar...
), in "Curiosities of Glasgow citizenship", an ebook available via the Glasgow Digital Library