The
Directory was a body of five
Directors that held executive power in France following the Convention and preceding the
ConsulateThe Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the Napoleonic Empire in 1804...
. The period of this regime (2 November 1795 until 10 November 1799), commonly known as the
Directory (or
Directoire) era, constitutes the second to last stage of the
French RevolutionThe French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
.
The Directory era itself is further split into two eras, the
First Directory and the
Second Directory, divided by the Coup of 18 Fructidor.
The directory system of government was also used in several
French client republicDuring its occupation of neighboring parts of Europe during the French Revolutionary Wars, France established republican regimes in these territories...
s and modern Switzerland; see directorial system.
Constitution of Year III
Under the
French Constitution of 1795The Constitution of 22 August 1795 was a national constitution of France ratified by the National Convention on 22 August 1795 during the French Revolution...
, qualified property holders elected 750 legislators, who divided themselves into the
Council of Five HundredThe Council of Five Hundred , or simply the Five Hundred was the lower house of the legislature of France during the period commonly known as the Directory , from 22 August 1795 until 9 November 1799, roughly the second half of the period generally referred to as the...
and the
Council of AncientsThe Council of Ancients or Council of Elders was the upper house of the Directory , the legislature of France from 22 August 1795 until 9 November 1799, roughly the second half of the period generally referred to as the French Revolution.The Council of Ancients was the senior of the two halves of...
. This bicameral legislature had a term of three years, with one-third of the members renewed every year. The Ancients held a suspensory veto, but possessed no initiative in legislation.
The constitution specified the executive as consisting of five directors, chosen by the Ancients out of a list sent to them by the Five Hundred. One director faced retirement each year. Ministers for the various departments of State aided the directors. These ministers did not form a council or cabinet and had no general powers of government.
The system made provision for the stringent control of all local authorities by the central government. Since the new constitution sought to create a
separation of powersThe separation of powers, often imprecisely used interchangeably with the trias politica principle, is a model for the governance of a state. The model was first developed in ancient Greece and came into widespread use by the Roman Republic as part of the unmodified Constitution of the Roman Republic...
, the directors had no voice in legislation or taxation, nor could directors or ministers sit in either house. The law guaranteed freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and freedom of labour, but forbade armed assemblies and even public meetings of political societies. Only individuals or public authorities could tender petitions.
From the beginning, however, circumstances restricted the free play of the constitution. The Convention had acquired so much unpopularity that, if its members had retired into private life, they would have courted danger and risked the undoing of their work. Therefore a decree required that two-thirds of the first legislature must come from among the members of the Convention.
When the constitution went before the primary assemblies, most electors held aloof, voting for and only voting against it. On 23 September it officially became law. Then all the parties which resented the limit upon freedom of election combined in Paris to rise in revolt. The government entrusted its defense to
Barras, but on
13 Vendémiaire13 Vendémiaire Year 4 is the name given to a battle between the French Revolutionary troops and Royalist forces in the streets of Paris...
(5 October 1795) the young General
Napoléon Bonaparte quelled ill-equipped and ill-led Parisian insurgents with a few thousand regular troops and well-placed artillery. Further resistance seemed impossible. The Convention dissolved itself on 26 October 1795.
After the selection of the Council of the Ancients by lot, it remained to name the directors. For its own security the Left resolved that all five must be old members of the Convention and regicides. The Ancients chose
- Jean-François Rewbell
Jean-François Rewbell was a French lawyer, diplomat, and politician of the Revolution.-The revolutionary:...
, an able, although unscrupulous, man of action
- Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras
Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras was a French politician of the French Revolution, and the main executive leader of the Directory regime of 1795–1799.-Early life:...
, a dissolute and shameless adventurer
- Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux
Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux was a French politician, member of the French DirectoryHe was born at Montaigu , the son of J. B. de la Révellière. He adopted the name Lépeaux from a small property belonging to his family, and he was known locally as M. de Lépeaux. He studied law at Angers...
, the chief of a new sect, the TheophilanthropistsThe Theophilanthropists were a deistic sect, formed in France during the latter part of the French Revolution.-Origins:...
, was therefore a bitter foe to other religions, especially the Roman Catholic Church
- Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot, renowned for his integrity
Integrity is a concept of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. In ethics, integrity is regarded as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of one's actions...
and memorable public services but not a statesman and hampered by his past
- Étienne-François Le Tourneur, a harmless insignificant person, admired and followed Carnot
The division in the legislature was reproduced in the Directoire.
Rewbell,
Barras and
La Révellière Lépeaux had a full measure of the
JacobinThe Jacobin Club was the most famous and influential political club in the development of the French Revolution, so-named because of the Dominican convent where they met, located in the Rue St. Jacques , Paris. The club originated as the Club Benthorn, formed at Versailles from a group of Breton...
spirit;
Carnot and
Le Tourneur favoured a more temperate policy.
Unpopularity of the Directory
With the establishment of the Directory, the Revolution seemed on the verge of ending. The nation was tired of the violence of the
TerrorThe Reign of Terror , also known simply as The Terror , was a period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between rival political factions, the Girondins and the Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of...
and needed time to recover. Those who wished to restore
Louis XVIII of FranceLouis XVIII , known as "the Unavoidable", was King of France and of Navarre from 1814 to 1824, omitting the Hundred Days in 1815...
and the
Ancien Régime and those who would have renewed the
Reign of TerrorThe Reign of Terror , also known simply as The Terror , was a period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between rival political factions, the Girondins and the Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of...
were insignificant in number. The possibility of foreign interference had vanished with the failure of the
First CoalitionThe War of the First Coalition was the first major effort of multiple European monarchies to contain Revolutionary France. France declared war on the Habsburg monarchy of Austria on 20 April 1792, and the Kingdom of Prussia joined the Austrian side a few weeks later.These powers initiated a series...
. Nevertheless, the four years of the Directory were a time of chronic disquiet and the late atrocities had made goodwill between parties impossible. The same instinct of self-preservation which had led the members of the Convention to claim so large a part in the new legislature and the whole of the Directoire impelled them to keep their predominance.
As the majority of Frenchmen wanted to be rid of them, they could achieve their purpose only by extraordinary means. They disregarded the terms of the constitution, and, when the elections went against them, they prolonged the war to stay in power. They were thus driven to rely upon the armies, which also desired war and were becoming less and less civic in temper.
Other reasons influenced them in this direction. The finances had been so thoroughly ruined that the government could not have met its expenses without the plunder and the tribute of foreign countries. If peace were made, the armies would return home and the directors would have to face the exasperation of the rank-and-file who had lost their livelihood, as well as the ambition of generals who could, in a moment, brush them aside.
Barras and
Rewbell were notoriously corrupt themselves and screened corruption in others. The patronage of the directors was ill-bestowed, and the general maladministration heightened their unpopularity.
The constitutional party in the legislature desired a
tolerationToleration is "the practice of deliberately allowing or permitting a thing of which one disapproves. One can meaningfully speak of tolerating, ie of allowing or permitting, only if one is in a position to disallow”. It has also been defined as "to bear or endure" or "to nourish, sustain or preserve"...
of the
nonjuring clergyA non-juror is a person who refuses to swear a particular oath.* In British history, non-jurors refused to swear allegiance to William and Mary; see Nonjuring schism...
, the repeal of the laws against the relatives of the
émigréÉmigré is a French term that literally refers to a person who has "migrated out", but often carries a connotation of politico-social self-exile....
s, and some merciful discrimination toward the
émigrés themselves. The directors baffled all such endeavours. On the other hand, the socialist conspiracy of
BabeufFrançois-Noël Babeuf , known as Gracchus Babeuf , was a French political agitator and journalist of the Revolutionary period...
was easily quelled. Little was done to improve the finances, and the
assignatAssignat was the type of a monetary instrument used during the time of the French Revolution, and the French Revolutionary Wars.- France :...
s continued.
Military successes
However, the Directoire was sustained by the military successes of 1796.
Hoche again suppressed the
Revolt in the VendéeThe War in the Vendée was a Royalist rebellion and counterrevolution in the Vendée region of France during the French Revolution. The Vendée is a coastal region, located immediately south of the Loire River in western France. The uprising was closely tied to the Chouannerie, which took place in...
. Bonaparte's victories in Italy more than compensated for the reverses of
JourdanJean-Baptiste Jourdan, 1st Comte Jourdan , enlisted as a private in the French royal army and rose to command armies during the French Revolutionary Wars. Emperor Napoleon I of France named him a Marshal of France in 1804 and he also fought in the Napoleonic Wars. After 1815, he became reconciled...
and
Moreau in Germany. The king of Sardinia made peace in May 1796, ceding
NiceNice is the fifth most populous city in France, after Paris, Marseille, Lyon and Toulouse, with a population of 348,721 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Nice extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of more than 955,000 on an area of...
and
SavoySavoy is a region of France. It comprises roughly the territory of the Western Alps situated between Lake Geneva in the north and Monaco and the Mediterranean coast in the south....
to the French Republic and consenting to receive French garrisons in his Piedmontese fortresses. By the
Treaty of San IldefonsoThe Second Treaty of San Ildefonso was signed on August 19, 1796 between the Spanish Empire and the First French Republic. Based on the terms of the agreement, France and Spain would become allies and combine their forces against the British Empire.-See also:...
, concluded in August, Spain became the ally of France. In October 1796,
NaplesNaples is a city in Southern Italy, situated on the country's west coast by the Gulf of Naples. Lying between two notable volcanic regions, Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields, it is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples...
made peace.
In 1797,
Bonaparte finished the conquest of northern Italy and forced Austria to make the
treaty of Campo FormioThe Treaty of Campo Formio was signed on 18 October 1797 by Napoleon Bonaparte and Count Philipp von Cobenzl as representatives of revolutionary France and the Austrian monarchy...
(October), whereby
the emperorFrancis II was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling from 1792 until 6 August 1806, when he dissolved the Empire after the disastrous defeat of the Third Coalition by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz...
ceded
LombardyLombardy is one of the 20 regions of Italy. The capital is Milan. One-sixth of Italy's population lives in Lombardy and about one fifth of Italy's GDP is produced in this region, making it the most populous and richest region in the country and one of the richest in the whole of Europe...
and the Austrian Netherlands to the French Republic in exchange for
VeniceVenice is a city in northern Italy which is renowned for the beauty of its setting, its architecture and its artworks. It is the capital of the Veneto region...
and undertook to urge upon the Diet the surrender of the lands beyond the
Rhine. Notwithstanding the victory of
Cape St VincentIn the Battle of Cape St Vincent a British fleet under Admiral Sir John Jervis defeated a larger Spanish fleet under Admiral Don José de Córdoba near Cape St. Vincent, Portugal.-Origins:...
, the United Kingdom was brought into such extreme peril by the mutinies in its fleet that it offered to acknowledge the French conquest of the Netherlands and to restore the French colonies.
The selfishness of the three directors threw away this golden opportunity. In March and April, the election of a new third of the Councils had been held. It gave a majority to the constitutional party. Among the directors, the lot fell on
Le Tourneur to retire, and he was succeeded by
Barthélemy, an eminent diplomatist, who allied himself with
Carnot. The political disabilities imposed upon the relatives of
émigrés were repealed. Priests who would declare their submission to the Republic were restored to their rights as citizens. It seemed likely that peace would be made and that moderate men would gain power.
18 Fructidor
Barras,
Rewbell, and
La Révellière-Lépeaux then sought help from the armies. Although
RoyalistsThe House of Bourbon is a European royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty . Bourbon kings first ruled Navarre and France in the 16th century. By the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Parma...
formed but a petty fraction of the majority, they accused that fraction of seeking to restore monarchy and to undo the work of the Revolution.
Hoche, then in command of the
Army of Sambre-et-MeuseThe Army of Sambre-et-Meuse is the best known of the armies of the French Revolution. It was formed on 29 June 1794 by combining three forces: the Army of the Ardennes, the left wing of the Army of Moselle, and the right wing of the Army of the North. It had a brief but celebrated existence...
, visited Paris and sent troops. Bonaparte sent
General Augereau, who executed the
coup d'état of
18 Fructidor (4 September 1797).
The councils were purged, the elections in forty-nine departments were cancelled, and many deputies and other men of note were arrested. Some of them, including
Barthélemy, Pichegru, Barbé-Marbois and Laffon de Ladebat were deported to
CayenneCayenne is the capital of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. The city stands on a former island at the mouth of the Cayenne River on the Atlantic coast. The city's motto is "Ferit Aurum Industria" which means "Work brings wealth"...
.
Carnot made good his escape. The two vacant places in the Directoire were filled by
Merlin de Douai and
Nicolas-Louis François de Neufchâteau. Then the government frankly returned to
JacobinThe Jacobin Club was the most famous and influential political club in the development of the French Revolution, so-named because of the Dominican convent where they met, located in the Rue St. Jacques , Paris. The club originated as the Club Benthorn, formed at Versailles from a group of Breton...
methods. The law against the relatives of
émigrés was reenacted, and military tribunals were established to condemn
émigrés who should return to France.
The nonjuring priests were again persecuted. Many hundreds were either sent to
Cayenne or imprisoned in the hulks of
Ré and
Oléron.
La Révellière LépeauxLouis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux was a French politician, member of the French DirectoryHe was born at Montaigu , the son of J. B. de la Révellière. He adopted the name Lépeaux from a small property belonging to his family, and he was known locally as M. de Lépeaux. He studied law at Angers...
seized the opportunity to propagate his religion. Many churches were turned into Theophilanthropic temples. The government strained its power to secure the recognition of the
décadi as the day of public worship and the non-observance of Sunday.
Liberty of the pressFreedom of the press or freedom of the media is the freedom of communication and expression through vehicles including various electronic media and published materials...
ceased. Newspapers were confiscated and journalists were deported wholesale. It was proposed to banish from France all members of the old
noblesseAristocracy , is a form of government in which a few elite citizens rule. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning "rule of the best". In origin in Ancient Greece, it was conceived of as rule by the best qualified citizens, and contrasted with monarchy...
. Although the proposal was dropped, they were all declared to be foreigners and were forced to obtain naturalisation if they would enjoy the rights of other citizens. A formal bankruptcy of the state, the cancelling of two-thirds of the interest on the public debt, crowned the misgovernment of this disastrous time.
1798
In the spring of 1798, not only a new third of the legislature had to be chosen, but the places of the members expelled by the revolution of
Fructidor had to be filled. The constitutional party had been rendered helpless, and the mass of the electors were indifferent. However, among the
JacobinsThe Jacobin Club was the most famous and influential political club in the development of the French Revolution, so-named because of the Dominican convent where they met, located in the Rue St. Jacques , Paris. The club originated as the Club Benthorn, formed at Versailles from a group of Breton...
themselves, there had arisen an extreme party hostile to the directors. With the support of many who were not Jacobins but detested the government, it bade fair to gain a majority. Before the new deputies could take their seats, the directors forced through the councils the
law of 22 FloréalThe Law of 22 Floréal Year VI was a law—arguably constituting a bloodless coup—passed on 11 May 1798 by which 106 left-wing deputies were deprived of their seats in the Council of Five Hundred, the lower house of the legislature under the French Directory....
, annulling or perverting the elections in thirty departments and excluding forty-eight deputies by name. Even this
coup d'état did not secure harmony between the executive and the legislature. In the councils, the directors were loudly charged with corruption and misgovernment. The retirement of
François de Neufchâteau and the choice of
Treilhard as his successor (15 May 1798) made no difference in the position of the Directoire.
While France was thus inwardly convulsed, its rulers were doubly bound to husband the national strength and practise moderation towards other states. Since December 1797, a congress had been sitting at
RastattRastatt is a city and baroque residence in the District of Rastatt, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is located on the Murg river, above its junction with the Rhine and has a population of around 50'000...
to regulate the future of Germany. That it should be brought to a successful conclusion was of the utmost importance for France. However, the directors were driven by self-interest to new adventures abroad.
Bonaparte was resolved not to sink into obscurity, and the directors were anxious to keep him as far as possible from Paris. They, therefore, sanctioned the expedition to
EgyptEgypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
which deprived the Republic of its best army and most renowned captain. Coveting the treasures of Bern, the Directors sent
BruneGuillaume Marie Anne Brune, 1st Comte Brune was a French soldier and political figure who rose to Marshal of France....
to invade Switzerland and remodel its constitution. In revenge for the murder of General
Duphot (28 December 1797), they sent
BerthierLouis Alexandre Berthier, 1st Prince de Wagram, 1st Duc de Valangin, 1st Sovereign Prince de Neuchâtel , was a Marshal of France, Vice-Constable of France beginning in 1808, and Chief of Staff under Napoleon.-Early life:Alexandre was born at Versailles to Lieutenant-Colonel Jean Baptiste Berthier ,...
to invade the
Papal StatesThe Papal State, State of the Church, or Pontifical States were among the major historical states of Italy from roughly the 6th century until the Italian peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia .The Papal States comprised territories under...
and erect the
Roman RepublicThe Roman Republic was proclaimed on February 15, 1798 after Louis Alexandre Berthier, a general of Napoleon, had invaded the city of Rome on February 10....
. They also occupied and virtually annexed Piedmont. In all these countries, they organised such an effective pillage that the French became universally hated.
As the armies were far below the strength required by the policy of unbounded conquest and rapine, the first permanent law of
conscriptionConscription is the compulsory enlistment of people in some sort of national service, most often military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in some countries to the present day under various names...
was passed in the summer of 1798. The attempt to enforce it caused a revolt of the peasants in the Belgian departments. The priests were held responsible and some eight thousand were condemned to deportation
en masse, although the much greater part escaped by the goodwill of the people. Few soldiers were obtained by the conscription, for the government was as weak as it was tyrannical.
Under these circumstances, Horatio Nelson's victory of
AboukirThe Battle of the Nile was a major naval battle fought between British and French fleets at Aboukir Bay on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt from 1–3 August 1798...
(1 August 1798), which gave the British full command of the Mediterranean and isolated
Bonaparte in Egypt, was the signal for a second coalition. Naples, Austria, Russia and
TurkeyTurkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
joined Great Britain against France.
Ferdinand IV of NaplesFerdinand I reigned variously over Naples, Sicily, and the Two Sicilies from 1759 until his death. He was the third son of King Charles III of Spain by his wife Maria Amalia of Saxony. On 10 August 1759, Charles succeeded his elder brother, Ferdinand VI, as King Charles III of Spain...
, rashly taking the offensive before his allies were ready, was defeated and forced to seek a refuge in
SicilySicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
.
1799
In January 1799, the French occupied Naples along with Togar and set up the
Parthenopaean RepublicThe Parthenopean Republic was a French-supported republic in the territory of the Kingdom of Naples, formed during the French Revolutionary Wars after King Ferdinand IV fled before advancing French troops...
. But the consequent dispersion of their weak forces only exposed them to greater peril. At home, the Directoire was in a most critical position. In the elections of April 1799, a large number of
JacobinsThe Jacobin Club was the most famous and influential political club in the development of the French Revolution, so-named because of the Dominican convent where they met, located in the Rue St. Jacques , Paris. The club originated as the Club Benthorn, formed at Versailles from a group of Breton...
gained seats. A little later
Rewbell retired. It was imperative to fill his place with a man of ability and influence. The choice fell upon
SieyèsEmmanuel Joseph Sieyès , commonly known as Abbé Sieyès, was a French Roman Catholic abbé and clergyman, one of the chief theorists of the French Revolution, French Consulate, and First French Empire...
, who had kept aloof from office and retained not only his immeasurable self-conceit but the respect of the public.
Sieyès felt that the Directoire had bankrupted its own reputation, and he intended to do far more than merely serve as a member of a board. He hoped to concentrate power in his own hands, to bridle the Jacobins, and to remodel the constitution. With the help of
Barras, he proceeded to rid himself of the other directors. An irregularity having emerged in
Treilhard's election, he retired, and
Gohier took his place (
30 Prairial, 18 June 1799).
Merlin de Douai and
La Révellière Lépeaux were driven to resign in June 1799;
MoulinJean-François-Auguste Moulin was a member of the French Directory. He had a long career as a military officer serving France in the Royal Army of King Louis XVI, the Garde Nationale of the French Revolution, and the Grande Armée of Napoleon Bonaparte.-Early life and military career:Moulin was...
and
DucosPierre Roger Ducos , better known as Roger Ducos, was a French political figure during the Revolution and First Empire, a member of the National Convention, and of the Directory....
replaced them. The three new directors so lacked significance that they could give no trouble, but for the same reason they could give little service.
Such a government proved ill-fitted to cope with the dangers then gathering round France. The directors resolved on a French offensive in Germany. The French crossed the Rhine early in March, but Archduke Charles of Austria defeated them, first at
OstrachThe Battle of Ostrach, also called the Battle by Ostrach, occurred on 20–21 March 1799. It was the first battle of the War of the Second Coalition. The battle resulted in the victory of the Austrian forces, under the command of Archduke Charles, over the French forces, commanded by Jean...
on 23 March and then at
StockachOn 25 March 1799, French and Austrian armies fought for control of the geographically strategic Hegau region in present day Baden-Württemberg. The battle has been called by various names: First Battle of Stockach, the Battle by Stockach, and, in French chronicles, the Battle of Liptingen...
on 25 March 1799. Jourdan's
Army of the DanubeThe Army of the Danube was a field army of the French Directory in the 1799 southwestern campaign in the Upper Danube valley. It was formed on 2 March 1799 by the simple expedient of renaming the Army of Observation, which had been observing Austrian movements on the border between First...
withdrew to the Rhine under the command of Lecourbe, while Jourdan himself returned to Paris to plea for more and better soldiers. The
congress at RastattThe Second Congress of Rastatt, which was opened in December 1797, was intended to rearrange the map of Germany by providing compensation for those princes whose lands on the left bank of the Rhine had been seized by France....
, which had sat for fifteen months without actually accomplishing anything, broke in April, and Austrian hussars murdered the French envoys. In Italy, the allies took the offensive with an army partly Austrian, partly Russian, under the command of the Russian field marshal (future generalissimo)
SuvorovAlexander Vasilyevich Suvorov , Count Suvorov of Rymnik, Prince in Italy, Count of the Holy Roman Empire , was the fourth and last generalissimo of the Russian Empire.One of the few great generals in history who never lost a battle along with the likes of Alexander...
. After defeating
Moreau at
Cassano d'AddaCassano d'Adda is a town and comune in the province of Milan, Lombardy, Italy, located on the right side of the Adda River. It is on the border of the province of Milan and the province of Bergamo.-History:...
on 27 April 1799, he occupied
MilanMilan is the second-largest city in Italy and the capital city of the region of Lombardy and of the province of Milan. The city proper has a population of about 1.3 million, while its urban area, roughly coinciding with its administrative province and the bordering Province of Monza and Brianza ,...
and
TurinTurin is a city and major business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region, located mainly on the left bank of the Po River and surrounded by the Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 909,193 while the population of the urban area is estimated by Eurostat...
. The puppet republics established by the French in Italy collapsed, and Suvorov defeated the French army on the
TrebbiaThe Trebbia is a river predominantly of Liguria and Emilia Romagna in northern Italy. It is one of the four main right-bank tributaries of the river Po, the other three being the Tanaro, the Secchia and the Panaro...
as it retreated from Naples.
Thus threatened with invasion on her German and Italian frontiers, France seemed disabled by anarchy within. The finances stood in the last distress; the anti-religious policy of the government kept many
départements on the verge of revolt; and commerce almost ground to a halt due to the decay of roads and the increase of bandits. The French lacked any real political freedom, yet also lacked the ease or security which enlightened despotism can bestow. The Terrorists lifted their heads in the Council of Five Hundred. A
Law of HostagesIn 1799, late in the French Revolution, the Law of Hostages was enacted by the Executive Directory in order to assure itself of domination in the provinces...
, which was really a new
Law of SuspectsThe Law of Suspects is a term which is used to refer to an enactment passed on 17 September 1793 during the course of the French Revolution. It allowed for the creation of revolutionary tribunals to try those who were suspected of treason against the Republic and to punish those convicted with death...
, and a
progressiveA progressive tax is a tax by which the tax rate increases as the taxable base amount increases. "Progressive" describes a distribution effect on income or expenditure, referring to the way the rate progresses from low to high, where the average tax rate is less than the marginal tax rate...
income taxAn income tax is a tax levied on the income of individuals or businesses . Various income tax systems exist, with varying degrees of tax incidence. Income taxation can be progressive, proportional, or regressive. When the tax is levied on the income of companies, it is often called a corporate...
showed the temper of the majority. The Jacobin Club re-opened and became once more the focus of disorder. The Jacobin press renewed the licence of
Hébert and
MaratJean-Paul Marat , born in the Principality of Neuchâtel, was a physician, political theorist, and scientist best known for his career in France as a radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution...
. Never since the outbreak of the Revolution had the public temper seemed so gloomy.
In this extremity,
Sieyès chose as minister of police the old Terrorist
Joseph FouchéJoseph Fouché, 1st Duc d'Otrante was a French statesman and Minister of Police under Napoleon Bonaparte. In English texts his title is often translated as Duke of Otranto.-Youth:Fouché was born in Le Pellerin, a small village near Nantes...
, who best understood how to deal with his brethren.
Fouché closed the Jacobin Club and deported a number of journalists. However, like his predecessors,
Sieyès felt that for the revolution which he meditated, he must have the help of a soldier. As his man of action, he chose General
JoubertBarthélemy Catherine Joubert was a French general. He joined the royal French army in 1784 and rose rapidly in rank during the French Revolutionary Wars. Napoleon Bonaparte recognized his talents and gave him increased responsibilities...
, one of the most distinguished among French officers. The Directoire sent
Joubert to restore the fortunes of the war in Italy. At
Novi- Places:In Bosnia and Herzegovina:* Bosanski Novi, a town in northwestern region of the country.In Italy:* Novi di Modena, a commune in the province of Modena...
, on 15 August 1799, he encountered Suvorov. He was killed at the outset of the battle and his men suffered defeat.
After this disaster, the French held scarcely any territory south of the
AlpsThe Alps is one of the great mountain range systems of Europe, stretching from Austria and Slovenia in the east through Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Germany to France in the west....
save
GenoaGenoa |Ligurian]] Zena ; Latin and, archaically, English Genua) is a city and an important seaport in northern Italy, the capital of the Province of Genoa and of the region of Liguria....
. The Russian and Austrian governments then agreed to drive the enemy out of Switzerland and to invade France from the east. At the same time, the joint forces of Great Britain and Russia
assailed the NetherlandsThe Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland refers to the campaign of 27 August to 19 November 1799 during the War of the Second Coalition, in which an expeditionary force of British and Russian troops invaded the North-Holland peninsula in the Batavian Republic...
. However, the narrow views and conflicting interests of the members of the second coalition doomed it to failure like the first. Lack of co-ordination between Austrians and Russians, and
André MassénaAndré Masséna 1st Duc de Rivoli, 1st Prince d'Essling was a French military commander during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars....
's victory at
ZürichZurich is the largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zurich. It is located in central Switzerland at the northwestern tip of Lake Zurich...
(25–26 September 1799) stalled the invasion of Switzerland. In October, the British and the Russians had to evacuate the Netherlands. All immediate danger to France ended, but the issue of war remained in suspense. The Directors had felt forced to recall
Bonaparte from Egypt. He anticipated their order and on 9 October 1799 landed at
FréjusFréjus is a commune in the Var department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in southeastern France.It neighbours Saint-Raphaël, effectively forming one town...
.
End of the Directoire
The Directoire and the French Revolution itself came to an end with the
coup d'état of
18 BrumaireThe coup of 18 Brumaire was the coup d'état by which General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the French Directory, replacing it with the French Consulate...
(9 November 1799) in which General
Napoléon Bonaparte overthrew the Directoire and replaced it with the
ConsulateThe Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the Napoleonic Empire in 1804...
.
In November 1799, France was suffering the effects of military reverses brought on by
Bonaparte's adventurism in the Middle East. The looming threat of opportunistic invasion by the Second Coalition had provoked internal unrest, with
Bonaparte stuck in Egypt. A return to
JacobinismA Jacobin , in the context of the French Revolution, was a member of the Jacobin Club, a revolutionary far-left political movement. The Jacobin Club was the most famous political club of the French Revolution. So called from the Dominican convent where they originally met, in the Rue St. Jacques ,...
seemed possible.
The
coup was first prepared by the
Abbé Sieyès, then one of the five Directors.
Bonaparte returned from
EgyptEgypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
a hero to the public despite his reverses.
Sieyès believed he had found the general indispensable to his coup. However,
Bonaparte promptly began a
coup within the
coup. Ultimately, the
coup brought to power
Bonaparte, not
Sieyès.
The plan was, through the use of troops conveniently arrayed around Paris, first to persuade the Directors to resign, then to persuade the two Councils to appoint a pliant commission to draw up a new constitution.
On the morning of
18 Brumaire, members of the
Council of AncientsThe Council of Ancients or Council of Elders was the upper house of the Directory , the legislature of France from 22 August 1795 until 9 November 1799, roughly the second half of the period generally referred to as the French Revolution.The Council of Ancients was the senior of the two halves of...
sympathetic to the coup warned their colleagues of a Jacobin conspiracy and persuaded them to remove to
Saint-CloudSaint-Cloud is a commune in the western suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the centre of Paris.Like other communes of the Hauts-de-Seine such as Marnes-la-Coquette, Neuilly-sur-Seine or Vaucresson, Saint-Cloud is one of the wealthiest cities in France, ranked 22nd out of the 36500 in...
, west of Paris.
Bonaparte was charged with the safety of the two Councils. Three directors, including
Sieyès himself resigned, destroying quorum. However, the two Jacobin Directors,
GohierLouis-Jérôme Gohier was a French politician of the Revolutionary period.-Revolution:Born at Semblançay , the son of a notary, he was called to the bar association in Rennes, and practiced there until he was sent to represent the town in the Estates-general of 1789...
and
MoulinJean-François-Auguste Moulin was a member of the French Directory. He had a long career as a military officer serving France in the Royal Army of King Louis XVI, the Garde Nationale of the French Revolution, and the Grande Armée of Napoleon Bonaparte.-Early life and military career:Moulin was...
, refused to resign.
Moulin escaped,
Gohier was taken prisoner, and the two Councils were not immediately intimidated and continued to meet.
By the following day, the deputies had worked out that they were facing an attempted
coup rather than being protected from a Jacobin rebellion. Faced with their recalcitrance,
Bonaparte stormed into the chambers accompanied by a small escort of grenadiers. He met with heckling in both houses; he was first jostled, then outright assaulted. His brother
LucienLucien Bonaparte, Prince Français, 1st Prince of Canino and Musignano , born Luciano Buonaparte, was the third surviving son of Carlo Buonaparte and his wife Letizia Ramolino....
, President of the Council, called upon the grenadiers to defend their leader.
Napoleon escaped, but only through the use of military force. Ultimately, military force also dispersed the legislature.
The Consulate was declared, with
Bonaparte,
Sieyès, and
Roger DucosPierre Roger Ducos , better known as Roger Ducos, was a French political figure during the Revolution and First Empire, a member of the National Convention, and of the Directory....
as consuls.
The lack of reaction from the streets proved that the revolution was, indeed, over. In the words of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica, "A shabby compound of brute force and imposture, the 18th
Brumaire was nevertheless condoned, nay applauded, by the French nation. Weary of revolution, men sought no more than to be wisely and firmly governed." Resistance by Jacobin officeholders in the provinces was quickly crushed, twenty Jacobin legislators were exiled, and others were arrested.
Bonaparte completed his
coup within a
coup by the adoption of a constitution under which the First Consul, a position he was sure to hold, had greater power than the other two.
List of Directeurs
|
|
|
|
|
L. CarnotLazare Nicolas Marguerite, Comte Carnot , the Organizer of Victory in the French Revolutionary Wars, was a French politician, engineer, and mathematician.-Education and early life:...
4 November 1795 –
5 September 1797 |
E. F. Le Tourneur
2 November 1795 –
26 May 1797 |
J. F. Rewbell Jean-François Rewbell was a French lawyer, diplomat, and politician of the Revolution.-The revolutionary:...
2 November 1795 –
19 May 1799 |
L.-M. de La Révellière
2 November 1795 –
18 June 1799 |
P. Barras
2 November 1795 –
10 November 1799 |
F. Barthélemy
26 May 1797 –
5 September 1797 |
P.-A. Merlin
8 September 1797 –
18 June 1799 |
F. de Neufchâteau Nicolas-Louis François de Neufchâteau was a French statesman, poet, and scientist.-Early years:Born at Saffais, in Meurthe-et-Moselle, the son of a schoolteacher, he studied at the Jesuit college of Neufchâteau in the Vosges, and at the age of fourteen published a volume of poetry which obtained...
9 September 1797 –
19 May 1798 |
J. B. Treilhard
20 May 1798 –
17 June 1799 |
E. J. Sieyès
20 May 1799 –
10 November 1799 |
| J. F. A. Moulin Jean-François-Auguste Moulin was a member of the French Directory. He had a long career as a military officer serving France in the Royal Army of King Louis XVI, the Garde Nationale of the French Revolution, and the Grande Armée of Napoleon Bonaparte.-Early life and military career:Moulin was...
20 June 1799 –
10 November 1799 |
L. J. Gohier Louis-Jérôme Gohier was a French politician of the Revolutionary period.-Revolution:Born at Semblançay , the son of a notary, he was called to the bar association in Rennes, and practiced there until he was sent to represent the town in the Estates-general of 1789...
17 June 1799 –
10 November 1799 |
P.-R. Ducos
19 June 1799 –
10 November 1799 |
See also
- Timeline of the French Revolution
-Events preceding but pertinent to the French Revolution:*The Enlightenment, which led to many European writers criticising the Monarchy and espousing democratic, liberalist, nationalist and socialist ideas.1756...
- Directoire fashion
External links