Cultural diplomacy
Encyclopedia
Cultural diplomacy
(the science of diplomacy between cultures) has existed as a practice for centuries. Explorers, travelers, teachers and artists can be all considered examples of informal ambassadors or early cultural diplomats. The establishment of regular trade routes enables a frequent exchange of information and cultural gifts between traders and government representatives.
Such deliberate efforts of cultural exchange can be identified as early examples of cultural diplomacy. Indeed, any person interacting with different cultures, in the past as today, facilitates an important form of cultural exchange. The practices that this individual implements are an integral part of the science of cultural diplomacy.
A starting definition of Cultural Diplomacy is offered by the American political scientist and author, Milton C. Cummings, in his description of cultural diplomacy as: “the exchange of ideas, information, values, systems, traditions, beliefs, and other aspects of culture, with the intention of fostering mutual understanding”.
This cultural exchange can take place in fields including art, sport, literature, music, science and the economy. Such exchange implies communication and respect between the cultures involved, based on a sounder understanding of respective values and a reduced susceptibility to stereotypes. The potential of such an improved knowledge is to enable improved interaction and cooperation.
Cultural diplomacy is the initiation or facilitation of such exchanges with an aim to yielding long-term benefits, whether they promote national interests, build relationships, enhance socio-cultural understanding or promote trade and foreign investments.
on equal terms.
During this process, parties may discover aspects of a foreign culture
which they fundamentally disagree with or find abhorrent. These prescriptions do not require agreement with all aspects of a foreign culture, only for recognition and understanding. However, they are seen around the world.
Non-verbal communication also plays an important role in this process; foreign interpretations of body language and other forms of non-verbal communication must be observed to avoid ambiguity during a dialogue.
There is another side to cultural diplomacy which lends to aggressive or unusual forms of dialogue, such as excessive intonation or decision to remain silent for long periods during a meeting. This form of cultural diplomacy shares a common platform with the collaborative form as its use is premised on a cultural understanding that calculates the likely effect of its employment.
An example of this was demonstrated in the foreign relations
dispute between Russia
and the United Kingdom
over extradition
requests that resulted in the expulsion of diplomats by both countries.
In an interview with Russia Today News on 24 July 2007, at Zavidovo
, the Russian President, Vladimir Putin
, attributed the source of this dispute to a failure by the UK to adequately recognise Russian cultural dynamics and afford it equal rights on the same terms that it hoped to receive from Russia. Putin explained that the United Kingdom had failed to accede to Russian extradition requests on 30 previous occasions but could not accept the decision by Russia to refuse a single request, which was in line with the Russian constitution.
Perhaps the most remarkable practice of cultural diplomacy to date was displayed by William Wilberforce
MP in his associations with a campaign for the abolition of slavery. His campaign was spearheaded by a famous speech in the British House of Commons
on 12 May 1789.
Wilberforce engaged members of parliament and all who would listen in debates over the abolition of slavery, through a dialogue that recognised the distinct culture of a people who possessed an inherent human right to freedom, on the same terms as the rest of humanity. His understanding of the miserable nature of the slave trade and the cultural dynamics pertinent to African slaves was used to sow the seeds for a groundbreaking consensus in the Parliament of the United Kingdom
which led to the Slavery Abolition Act
of 1833.
Today, cultural diplomacy is practised within the context of general diplomacy and alongside other generic forms. The art has grown to become a global industry with legal foundations and a comprehensive set of conventions, epitomised by the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations
and Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations
.
Most governments enshrine their approach to cultural diplomacy within a foreign policy
document and appoint a foreign minister
to lead its implementation. The foreign minister is normally supported by a network of ambassadors and full body of diplomatic staff.
The continued evolution of cultural diplomacy is dependent on the behavioural economics of its adherents, as people develop better understandings of each other and new mediums of dialogue.
The development of new technologies has arguably had the most profound effect on the conduct of cultural diplomacy. The advent of multimedia
technologies including telecommunication, electronic mail, VoIP and audio video conferencing has made it possible for adherents to conduct cultural diplomacy without ever meeting, in a physical sense.
of the United States Department of State sponsors in whole or in part many exchange programs
, such as the Fulbright Program
and the International Visitor Leadership Program
. Exchange Programs such as these seek to develop cultural understanding between citizens of different countries.
National governments often are formed from a prevalent culture and caste group among a wider group of sub cultures within a state. They carry the potential of marginalising some cultures when conducting cultural diplomacy on behalf of citizens. Furthermore, decisions that follow from cultural diplomacy are often the responsibility of one individual, i.e., a president or chancellor
, whose values and belief set come into play during a decision making process.
Governments and rulers that fail to conduct cultural diplomacy in a manner that represents all cultures within a state, carry the danger of fostering civil unrest which can lead to civil war
.
Globalisation is another factor that has a bearing on the integrity of cultural diplomacy. The emergence of globalisation carries with it the emergence of what can be described as a prevalent global-culture which has the potential of eroding the cultures it comes into contact with. The adoption of United Nations Resolution 49/214 and 59/174, regarding the International Decades of the World's Indigenous People, are a direct response to this cultural erosion.
Cultural erosion directly affects the relevance of cultural diplomacy, as the establishment of a prevalent culture would remove the need for cultural recognition and understanding, if all people identified with a common culture.
, Libya
, on 9 September 1999, to succeed the Organisation of African Unity; this declaration is commonly referred to as the Sirte Declaration
. The inaugural assembly of the AU was convened at Durban in July 2002.
The African Union is an ambitious undertaking to integrate the cultural, political and economic streams of an entire continent into a body that functions to secure peace and stability for the advancement of sustainable development
. The AU functions more or less along the lines of the European Union, but, is a far more ambitious undertaking as it aims to integrate a membership spanning 53 nations.
The African Union fosters designs on a United Federation of African States that would confer a single currency, free movement of goods, people and services, amongst other features.
The endeavour of working to realise a fully functional Federation that integrates the multifarious assets and facets of 53 diverse nations is closely tied to the success of cultural recognition, understanding and dialogue among member states.
The achievement of every milestone along the path to a United Federation of African States requires the skilful use of cultural diplomacy between member states, to secure agreements, and between member states and citizens, to gain support for actions like a referendum to transfer sovereign powers.
Recognition of the importance that cultural diplomacy plays in this ambitious undertaking is set out under Mission 4 in the Strategic Plan of the African Union Commission Volume 1; the primary blueprint for achieving its mandate.
Whereas in the past state-sponsored cultural diplomacy has been associated with the intention to impose one way of life onto another, in recent times the focus has shifted dramatically. Within the context of state-sponsored cultural diplomacy, the common focus has moved from aggressive and imposing practices to a transparent and unselfish offering of culture
. This can be seen for example in the so called Ping-Pong Diplomacy'; the exchange of ping-pong players between the US and China
during the 1970s. Whilst there may have been economic and political advantages for the USA, the initiative was conducted in a transparent manner and was beneficial to both countries.
Nevertheless, in examples of state-sponsored cultural diplomacy programs there is a relatively clear intention. Each source nation is interested in the relaying of information regarding its values and way of life, with a view to fostering sympathy or acceptance thereof. The result is better economic or political connections with other countries. National culture is thus utilized for the ultimate intention of promoting that nation's standing on an international stage.
The practices of independent or semi- independent institutions of cultural diplomacy, such as the British Council
and the Goethe Institute, offer prime examples of the modern informative and exchange - based approach to national cultural diplomacy strategies. This type of exchange is on a considerably larger scale than individual exchange programs, and facilitates the mobility of individuals from both the cultural and academic sectors. Prime examples of this are the Erasmus/Socrates program or bilateral artist-exchange programs.
The initiatives of independent organizations such as those by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra travelling to North Korea
have further demonstrated the potential of cultural diplomacy to transcend national borders and enable mutually beneficial cross-cultural exchanges.
For the individual artists, academics or professionals involved in these direct exchanges of culture, their motivation is the opportunity to show their work and abilities and to learn about the other. The motivation is purely personal, without necessarily any political or economic goal.
Corporations and businesses, through the constantly evolving field of Corporate Social Responsibility
and Socially Responsible Investing, are developing many initiatives that assist in strengthening the dialogue, understanding and trust between nations and cultures. Indeed, companies are increasingly important as a channel of cultural exchange. On any occasion that an individual is sent abroad to work in a foreign office, they have the potential to act as an unofficial cultural diplomat, and in the context of international conferences can even be accepted as 'official' representatives of their country of origin, especially with regards to corporate culture and standard working practices.
Private sector foundations operate in an ever increasing number of countries and regions around the globe. In many cases they are funded and owned by private sector firms, but, at least officially, work independently of them for non-commercial purposes. By supporting projects and events in local communities in both domestic and international contexts, they offer another means of contact between different cultures, and by definition therefore are important agents of cultural exchange.
Cultural diplomacy can be used by different groups for different purposes. As demonstrated above, this can be by governments for a distinct political purpose, by academic institutions for the purpose of developing a greater knowledge base through academic exchange, or by independent organizations for the sole benefit of demonstrating their work and ideas to a new audience.
In addition, in an increasingly globalised international environment, companies and foundations are becoming ever more central as forums of international dialogue and cooperation. Although by diverse methods and with different motivations, all of these examples ensure that cultural diplomacy, as defined by M. C. Cummings, takes place.
Cultural diplomacy has acted as a peace keeping force in a number of situations throughout history. With increased social exchange and the platforms in place to promote it, the future potential for cultural diplomacy to improve mutual understanding on all levels is highly significant.
during the year 2011. The Outlook takes both a vertical approach by analysing cultural diplomacy involvement through different sectors, such as public, private, and civil society, and a horizontal approach of how that involvement is carried out in different geographical regions and within various cultural diplomacy themes, such as nation branding
, inter-religious dialogue, sports and the arts
.
in cooperation with the Institute for Cultural Diplomacy
launched a BA program and graduate Master of Arts program in International Relations and Cultural Diplomacy. The programs combine the traditional academic components of international relations with a focus on the role of soft power
and cultural diplomacy in contemporary global affairs.
The key objectives of the BA & MA in International Relations and Cultural Diplomacy programs are to leave students with a strong foundation in international relations theory and contemporary diplomatic strategies, allow them to explore and examine an area of particular interest, and help them gain practical experience through internships and research studies in relevant international institutions.
The program allows students to study with distinguished and renowned faculty from Croatia, Germany, Europe, and across the world, and enables contact with experts and organizations associated with international relations.
The current president of The ICD Academy for Cultural Diplomacy is Prof. Dr. Emil Constantinescu
, former president of Romania (from 1996 to 2000).
. In a relationship based upon Cultural Diplomacy there will always necessarily have to be an amount of asymmetry that can only be overcome by creating an artificial context for the encounter that adequately recognizes and addresses systemic problems based upon second-order cybernetics
. Those issues not addressed, the allegation of Cultural Imperialism cannot be effectively unhinged.
Diplomacy
Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of groups or states...
(the science of diplomacy between cultures) has existed as a practice for centuries. Explorers, travelers, teachers and artists can be all considered examples of informal ambassadors or early cultural diplomats. The establishment of regular trade routes enables a frequent exchange of information and cultural gifts between traders and government representatives.
Such deliberate efforts of cultural exchange can be identified as early examples of cultural diplomacy. Indeed, any person interacting with different cultures, in the past as today, facilitates an important form of cultural exchange. The practices that this individual implements are an integral part of the science of cultural diplomacy.
A starting definition of Cultural Diplomacy is offered by the American political scientist and author, Milton C. Cummings, in his description of cultural diplomacy as: “the exchange of ideas, information, values, systems, traditions, beliefs, and other aspects of culture, with the intention of fostering mutual understanding”.
This cultural exchange can take place in fields including art, sport, literature, music, science and the economy. Such exchange implies communication and respect between the cultures involved, based on a sounder understanding of respective values and a reduced susceptibility to stereotypes. The potential of such an improved knowledge is to enable improved interaction and cooperation.
Cultural diplomacy is the initiation or facilitation of such exchanges with an aim to yielding long-term benefits, whether they promote national interests, build relationships, enhance socio-cultural understanding or promote trade and foreign investments.
Recognition
The initial prescription of cultural diplomacy requires each party to recognise the distinct cultural dynamics of the other; this recognition affords equal human rightsHuman rights
Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
on equal terms.
Understanding
Parties are also prescribed the study of foreign cultural dynamics in order to gain an understanding of the traditions, history, language and general way of life, pertinent to the engaging party.During this process, parties may discover aspects of a foreign culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
which they fundamentally disagree with or find abhorrent. These prescriptions do not require agreement with all aspects of a foreign culture, only for recognition and understanding. However, they are seen around the world.
Dialogue
A universal tenet of basic dialogue requires one party to listen while the other speaks and vice versa. Cultural diplomacy prescribes the observance of this tenet and for parties to draw on their accrued cultural understanding when engaging in dialogue. This dynamic facilitates a dialogue that easily lends to collaboration. Parties may choose to conduct this dialogue through an interpreter or by using a common language.Non-verbal communication also plays an important role in this process; foreign interpretations of body language and other forms of non-verbal communication must be observed to avoid ambiguity during a dialogue.
There is another side to cultural diplomacy which lends to aggressive or unusual forms of dialogue, such as excessive intonation or decision to remain silent for long periods during a meeting. This form of cultural diplomacy shares a common platform with the collaborative form as its use is premised on a cultural understanding that calculates the likely effect of its employment.
Non-cultural diplomacy
The antithesis of cultural diplomacy occurs when one party fails to observe its prescriptions.An example of this was demonstrated in the foreign relations
International relations
International relations is the study of relationships between countries, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations , international nongovernmental organizations , non-governmental organizations and multinational corporations...
dispute between Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
and the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
over extradition
Extradition
Extradition is the official process whereby one nation or state surrenders a suspected or convicted criminal to another nation or state. Between nation states, extradition is regulated by treaties...
requests that resulted in the expulsion of diplomats by both countries.
In an interview with Russia Today News on 24 July 2007, at Zavidovo
Zavidovo
Zavidovo is a village in Konakovsky District of Tver Oblast, Russia. It is used as an official residence place for the President of Russia, and was also used by the Soviet leaders. The residence is situated in the Zavidovo nature reserve. According to UNESCO, Zavidovo is one of the most...
, the Russian President, Vladimir Putin
Vladimir Putin
Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin served as the second President of the Russian Federation and is the current Prime Minister of Russia, as well as chairman of United Russia and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Union of Russia and Belarus. He became acting President on 31 December 1999, when...
, attributed the source of this dispute to a failure by the UK to adequately recognise Russian cultural dynamics and afford it equal rights on the same terms that it hoped to receive from Russia. Putin explained that the United Kingdom had failed to accede to Russian extradition requests on 30 previous occasions but could not accept the decision by Russia to refuse a single request, which was in line with the Russian constitution.
Purpose
The purpose of cultural diplomacy is essentially determined by the parties involved. The following segments present examples of various purposes by various parties:- Union of nations: i.e., United NationsUnited NationsThe United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
, African UnionAfrican UnionThe African Union is a union consisting of 54 African states. The only all-African state not in the AU is Morocco. Established on 9 July 2002, the AU was formed as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity...
, League of Arab States, European UnionEuropean UnionThe European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
. Cultural diplomacy plays an essential role in the operational integrity of these unions as they thrive on consensus through voting systems that determine a cause of action. The absence of consensus often leads to deadlock. Cultural diplomacy is often used to influence voting decisions that cover such matters as military action, border disputes and trade.
- Individual nations: commonly use cultural diplomacy to improve international relations and secure agreements that cover issues like trade, investment, immigration and security.
- Private and public enterprises: often employ cultural diplomacy to secure mergers and acquisitions or to resolve customer complaints. Institutional cultural dynamics are epitomised by corporate ethos, practices and conventions.
- Non-governmental organisationsNon-governmental organizationA non-governmental organization is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any government. The term originated from the United Nations , and is normally used to refer to organizations that do not form part of the government and are...
(NGOs): often employ cultural diplomacy to influence government policy for the benefit of a given cause. Humanitarian aid agencies may use cultural diplomacy to influence traditions and practices that work against efforts to reduce poverty and illness in local communities. This ensures that their work is sustainable.
- Individuals: often use cultural diplomacy to build friendships or in discussions to influence opinion about a particular subject. The cultural dynamics of an individual are represented by personal beliefs, values and general way on life.
Practice
Cultural diplomacy can be practised by any number or combination of adherents. Owing to this nature, the roots of cultural diplomacy can be traced back to the very beginnings of human exchanges in dialogue. However, cultural diplomacy conducted by governments and rulers of nations often have the greatest effects on the lives of ordinary citizens and provide the most comprehensive records of its use.Perhaps the most remarkable practice of cultural diplomacy to date was displayed by William Wilberforce
William Wilberforce
William Wilberforce was a British politician, a philanthropist and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade. A native of Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire, he began his political career in 1780, eventually becoming the independent Member of Parliament for Yorkshire...
MP in his associations with a campaign for the abolition of slavery. His campaign was spearheaded by a famous speech in the British House of Commons
British House of Commons
The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords . Both Commons and Lords meet in the Palace of Westminster. The Commons is a democratically elected body, consisting of 650 members , who are known as Members...
on 12 May 1789.
Wilberforce engaged members of parliament and all who would listen in debates over the abolition of slavery, through a dialogue that recognised the distinct culture of a people who possessed an inherent human right to freedom, on the same terms as the rest of humanity. His understanding of the miserable nature of the slave trade and the cultural dynamics pertinent to African slaves was used to sow the seeds for a groundbreaking consensus in the Parliament of the United Kingdom
Parliament of the United Kingdom
The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom, British Crown dependencies and British overseas territories, located in London...
which led to the Slavery Abolition Act
Slavery Abolition Act
The Slavery Abolition Act 1833 was an 1833 Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom abolishing slavery throughout the British Empire...
of 1833.
Today, cultural diplomacy is practised within the context of general diplomacy and alongside other generic forms. The art has grown to become a global industry with legal foundations and a comprehensive set of conventions, epitomised by the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations
Vienna Convention on Consular Relations
The Vienna Convention on Consular Relations of 1963 is an international treaty that defines a framework for consular relations between independent countries...
and Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations
Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations
The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961 is an international treaty that defines a framework for diplomatic relations between independent countries. It specifies the privileges of a diplomatic mission that enable diplomats to perform their function without fear of coercion or...
.
Most governments enshrine their approach to cultural diplomacy within a foreign policy
Foreign policy
A country's foreign policy, also called the foreign relations policy, consists of self-interest strategies chosen by the state to safeguard its national interests and to achieve its goals within international relations milieu. The approaches are strategically employed to interact with other countries...
document and appoint a foreign minister
Foreign minister
A Minister of Foreign Affairs, or foreign minister, is a cabinet minister who helps form the foreign policy of a sovereign state. The foreign minister is often regarded as the most senior ministerial position below that of the head of government . It is often granted to the deputy prime minister in...
to lead its implementation. The foreign minister is normally supported by a network of ambassadors and full body of diplomatic staff.
The continued evolution of cultural diplomacy is dependent on the behavioural economics of its adherents, as people develop better understandings of each other and new mediums of dialogue.
The development of new technologies has arguably had the most profound effect on the conduct of cultural diplomacy. The advent of multimedia
Multimedia
Multimedia is media and content that uses a combination of different content forms. The term can be used as a noun or as an adjective describing a medium as having multiple content forms. The term is used in contrast to media which use only rudimentary computer display such as text-only, or...
technologies including telecommunication, electronic mail, VoIP and audio video conferencing has made it possible for adherents to conduct cultural diplomacy without ever meeting, in a physical sense.
Cultural Exchanges
Cultural Exchanges play a critical role in the cultural diplomacy of a government. For example, in the United States, the Bureau of Educational and Cultural AffairsBureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs
The Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the United States Department of State fosters mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries around the world...
of the United States Department of State sponsors in whole or in part many exchange programs
United States Cultural Exchange Programs
United States cultural exchange programs, particularly those programs with ties to theBureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the United States Department of State, seek to develop cultural understanding between United States citizens and citizens of other countries...
, such as the Fulbright Program
Fulbright Program
The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright-Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the...
and the International Visitor Leadership Program
International Visitor Leadership Program
The International Visitor Leadership Program is a professional exchange program funded by the U.S. Department of State Office of International Visitors in the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. The purpose of the program is to help build mutual understanding between citizens of the U.S....
. Exchange Programs such as these seek to develop cultural understanding between citizens of different countries.
The Uses of Cultural Diplomacy
Cultural Diplomacy can be employed in many ways and for various purposes:- The Public SectorPublic sectorThe public sector, sometimes referred to as the state sector, is a part of the state that deals with either the production, delivery and allocation of goods and services by and for the government or its citizens, whether national, regional or local/municipal.Examples of public sector activity range...
: By Governments or other politically motivated organizations for the promotion of national or regional interest; providing information regarding the country or region of origin, specifically its people and culture, the organization has a clear intent to promote its native values and culture.
- Civil SocietyCivil societyCivil society is composed of the totality of many voluntary social relationships, civic and social organizations, and institutions that form the basis of a functioning society, as distinct from the force-backed structures of a state , the commercial institutions of the market, and private criminal...
: By non-governmental organizations and individuals, motivated by the opportunity to develop and encourage platforms for mutual cultural exchange. Their activity could take the form of cooperation through the sharing of valuable professional information and networks, for example in the context of academic exchanges, international forums and tourism.
- The Private SectorPrivate sectorIn economics, the private sector is that part of the economy, sometimes referred to as the citizen sector, which is run by private individuals or groups, usually as a means of enterprise for profit, and is not controlled by the state...
: By private companies interested in the development of intercultural communication. Global businesses are not only an important conduit through which cultural exchange takes place, but are also increasingly interested in intercultural communication and cross- cultural learning as a means of improving their own effectiveness and practices.
Prevalent cultures
The level at which cultural diplomacy is practised can have a bearing on its quality and integrity.National governments often are formed from a prevalent culture and caste group among a wider group of sub cultures within a state. They carry the potential of marginalising some cultures when conducting cultural diplomacy on behalf of citizens. Furthermore, decisions that follow from cultural diplomacy are often the responsibility of one individual, i.e., a president or chancellor
Chancellor
Chancellor is the title of various official positions in the governments of many nations. The original chancellors were the Cancellarii of Roman courts of justice—ushers who sat at the cancelli or lattice work screens of a basilica or law court, which separated the judge and counsel from the...
, whose values and belief set come into play during a decision making process.
Governments and rulers that fail to conduct cultural diplomacy in a manner that represents all cultures within a state, carry the danger of fostering civil unrest which can lead to civil war
Civil war
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation state....
.
Globalisation is another factor that has a bearing on the integrity of cultural diplomacy. The emergence of globalisation carries with it the emergence of what can be described as a prevalent global-culture which has the potential of eroding the cultures it comes into contact with. The adoption of United Nations Resolution 49/214 and 59/174, regarding the International Decades of the World's Indigenous People, are a direct response to this cultural erosion.
Cultural erosion directly affects the relevance of cultural diplomacy, as the establishment of a prevalent culture would remove the need for cultural recognition and understanding, if all people identified with a common culture.
Case study: African Union
The African Union (AU) was formed as a result of a declaration by African heads of state in SirteSirte
Sirte is a city in LibyaSirte may also refer to:* Sirte Declaration, a 1999 resolution to create the African Union* Sirte Oil Company, a Libyan oil companyIn geography:* Gulf of Sirte, alias for Gulf of Sidra on Libya's coast...
, Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
, on 9 September 1999, to succeed the Organisation of African Unity; this declaration is commonly referred to as the Sirte Declaration
Sirte Declaration
The Sirte Declaration was the resolution adopted by the Organisation of African Unity on 9 September 1999, at the fourth Extraordinary Session of the OAU Assembly of African Heads of State and Government held at Sirte, Libya...
. The inaugural assembly of the AU was convened at Durban in July 2002.
The African Union is an ambitious undertaking to integrate the cultural, political and economic streams of an entire continent into a body that functions to secure peace and stability for the advancement of sustainable development
Sustainable development
Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use, that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for generations to come...
. The AU functions more or less along the lines of the European Union, but, is a far more ambitious undertaking as it aims to integrate a membership spanning 53 nations.
The African Union fosters designs on a United Federation of African States that would confer a single currency, free movement of goods, people and services, amongst other features.
The endeavour of working to realise a fully functional Federation that integrates the multifarious assets and facets of 53 diverse nations is closely tied to the success of cultural recognition, understanding and dialogue among member states.
The achievement of every milestone along the path to a United Federation of African States requires the skilful use of cultural diplomacy between member states, to secure agreements, and between member states and citizens, to gain support for actions like a referendum to transfer sovereign powers.
Recognition of the importance that cultural diplomacy plays in this ambitious undertaking is set out under Mission 4 in the Strategic Plan of the African Union Commission Volume 1; the primary blueprint for achieving its mandate.
Examples of Cultural Diplomacy
Cultural diplomacy can be used in a number of forms, and with a range of different intentions, to help improve intercultural dialogue.Whereas in the past state-sponsored cultural diplomacy has been associated with the intention to impose one way of life onto another, in recent times the focus has shifted dramatically. Within the context of state-sponsored cultural diplomacy, the common focus has moved from aggressive and imposing practices to a transparent and unselfish offering of culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
. This can be seen for example in the so called Ping-Pong Diplomacy'; the exchange of ping-pong players between the US and China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
during the 1970s. Whilst there may have been economic and political advantages for the USA, the initiative was conducted in a transparent manner and was beneficial to both countries.
Nevertheless, in examples of state-sponsored cultural diplomacy programs there is a relatively clear intention. Each source nation is interested in the relaying of information regarding its values and way of life, with a view to fostering sympathy or acceptance thereof. The result is better economic or political connections with other countries. National culture is thus utilized for the ultimate intention of promoting that nation's standing on an international stage.
The practices of independent or semi- independent institutions of cultural diplomacy, such as the British Council
British Council
The British Council is a United Kingdom-based organisation specialising in international educational and cultural opportunities. It is registered as a charity both in England and Wales, and in Scotland...
and the Goethe Institute, offer prime examples of the modern informative and exchange - based approach to national cultural diplomacy strategies. This type of exchange is on a considerably larger scale than individual exchange programs, and facilitates the mobility of individuals from both the cultural and academic sectors. Prime examples of this are the Erasmus/Socrates program or bilateral artist-exchange programs.
The initiatives of independent organizations such as those by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra travelling to North Korea
North Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...
have further demonstrated the potential of cultural diplomacy to transcend national borders and enable mutually beneficial cross-cultural exchanges.
For the individual artists, academics or professionals involved in these direct exchanges of culture, their motivation is the opportunity to show their work and abilities and to learn about the other. The motivation is purely personal, without necessarily any political or economic goal.
Corporations and businesses, through the constantly evolving field of Corporate Social Responsibility
Corporate social responsibility
Corporate social responsibility is a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model...
and Socially Responsible Investing, are developing many initiatives that assist in strengthening the dialogue, understanding and trust between nations and cultures. Indeed, companies are increasingly important as a channel of cultural exchange. On any occasion that an individual is sent abroad to work in a foreign office, they have the potential to act as an unofficial cultural diplomat, and in the context of international conferences can even be accepted as 'official' representatives of their country of origin, especially with regards to corporate culture and standard working practices.
Private sector foundations operate in an ever increasing number of countries and regions around the globe. In many cases they are funded and owned by private sector firms, but, at least officially, work independently of them for non-commercial purposes. By supporting projects and events in local communities in both domestic and international contexts, they offer another means of contact between different cultures, and by definition therefore are important agents of cultural exchange.
Cultural diplomacy can be used by different groups for different purposes. As demonstrated above, this can be by governments for a distinct political purpose, by academic institutions for the purpose of developing a greater knowledge base through academic exchange, or by independent organizations for the sole benefit of demonstrating their work and ideas to a new audience.
In addition, in an increasingly globalised international environment, companies and foundations are becoming ever more central as forums of international dialogue and cooperation. Although by diverse methods and with different motivations, all of these examples ensure that cultural diplomacy, as defined by M. C. Cummings, takes place.
Cultural diplomacy has acted as a peace keeping force in a number of situations throughout history. With increased social exchange and the platforms in place to promote it, the future potential for cultural diplomacy to improve mutual understanding on all levels is highly significant.
Cultural Diplomacy Outlook Report 2011
The Outlook is a compilation of the research undertaken by the Institute for Cultural DiplomacyInstitute for Cultural Diplomacy
The Institute for Cultural Diplomacy is an international, not-for-profit, non-governmental organisation based in Berlin. Founded in 1999 by Mark Donfried, its activities focus on promoting and developing the field of cultural diplomacy by conducting research, initiatives and programs, holding...
during the year 2011. The Outlook takes both a vertical approach by analysing cultural diplomacy involvement through different sectors, such as public, private, and civil society, and a horizontal approach of how that involvement is carried out in different geographical regions and within various cultural diplomacy themes, such as nation branding
Nation branding
Nation branding is a field of theory and practice which aims to measure, build and manage the reputation of countries . Some approaches applied, such as an increasing importance on the symbolic value of products, have led countries to emphasise their distinctive characteristics...
, inter-religious dialogue, sports and the arts
ARts
aRts, which stands for analog Real time synthesizer, is an audio framework that is no longer under development. It is best known for previously being used in KDE to simulate an analog synthesizer....
.
- Cultural Diplomacy in the Public Sector: Country Ranking Report
- Cultural Diplomacy Regional Focus
- Cultural Diplomacy Individual Country Focus
- Nation Branding: Country-Specific Evaluations
- Cultural Diplomacy Initiatives in Civil Society
- Global Governance Cultural Diplomacy
- Cultural Diplomacy in the Private Sector: Company Ranking Report
- Cultural Diplomacy in Practice
Other definitions
- Cultural diplomacy is a concept in political science describing the use and transfer of cultural ideas between different group to achieve rapport and understanding.
- "Cultural diplomacy is a prime example of "soft powerSoft powerSoft power is the ability to obtain what one wants through co-option and attraction. It can be contrasted with 'hard power', that is the use of coercion and payment...
" or the ability to persuade through culture, value, and ideas opposed to "hard power" which conquers or coerces through military might." - Joseph Nye
- Cultural diplomacy alludes to the official practice of governments conducting international relations (negotiating treaties, alliances, shaping policy, etc.) using soft power. For thousands of years, the use of violence has been the basis and ultimate sanction of power politics - the endpoint being war. Cultural diplomacy, by stressing soft power in politics, offers a potentially life-saving alternative.
Studies in Cultural Diplomacy
With growing importance of cultural diplomacy in contemporary world, a need for studies in cultural diplomacy arises. It is important for today’s students to gain access to an expert faculty with experience in international politics and diplomacy, and acquire the knowledge and skills needed to work in a complex global order. Thus, starting in October 2011, Dubrovnik International UniversityDubrovnik International University
Dubrovnik International University is a private university established in 2008 under the auspices of the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations and in conjunction with both Croatian and American institutions. It is located within the Dominican Monastery in Dubrovnik, Croatia and is the first...
in cooperation with the Institute for Cultural Diplomacy
Institute for Cultural Diplomacy
The Institute for Cultural Diplomacy is an international, not-for-profit, non-governmental organisation based in Berlin. Founded in 1999 by Mark Donfried, its activities focus on promoting and developing the field of cultural diplomacy by conducting research, initiatives and programs, holding...
launched a BA program and graduate Master of Arts program in International Relations and Cultural Diplomacy. The programs combine the traditional academic components of international relations with a focus on the role of soft power
Soft power
Soft power is the ability to obtain what one wants through co-option and attraction. It can be contrasted with 'hard power', that is the use of coercion and payment...
and cultural diplomacy in contemporary global affairs.
The key objectives of the BA & MA in International Relations and Cultural Diplomacy programs are to leave students with a strong foundation in international relations theory and contemporary diplomatic strategies, allow them to explore and examine an area of particular interest, and help them gain practical experience through internships and research studies in relevant international institutions.
The program allows students to study with distinguished and renowned faculty from Croatia, Germany, Europe, and across the world, and enables contact with experts and organizations associated with international relations.
The current president of The ICD Academy for Cultural Diplomacy is Prof. Dr. Emil Constantinescu
Emil Constantinescu
Emil Constantinescu was President of Romania from 1996 to 2000.He graduated from the law school of the University of Bucharest, and subsequently started a career as a geologist...
, former president of Romania (from 1996 to 2000).
Criticism
Certain aspects of Cultural Diplomacy entail aspects of what is sometimes called Cultural ImperialismCultural imperialism
Cultural imperialism is the domination of one culture over another. Cultural imperialism can take the form of a general attitude or an active, formal and deliberate policy, including military action. Economic or technological factors may also play a role...
. In a relationship based upon Cultural Diplomacy there will always necessarily have to be an amount of asymmetry that can only be overcome by creating an artificial context for the encounter that adequately recognizes and addresses systemic problems based upon second-order cybernetics
Second-order cybernetics
Second-order cybernetics, also known as the cybernetics of cybernetics, investigates the construction of models of cybernetic systems. It investigates cybernetics with awareness that the investigators are part of the system, and of the importance of self-referentiality, self-organizing, the...
. Those issues not addressed, the allegation of Cultural Imperialism cannot be effectively unhinged.
See also
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Intercultural competence Intercultural competence is the ability of successful communication with people of other cultures.A person who is interculturally competent captures and understands, in interaction with people from foreign cultures, their specific concepts in perception, thinking, feeling and acting... Peace treaty A peace treaty is an agreement between two or more hostile parties, usually countries or governments, that formally ends a state of war between the parties... Ping Pong Diplomacy Ping pong diplomacy refers to the exchange of ping pong players between the United States and People's Republic of China in the 1970s. The event marked a thaw in U.S.–China relations that paved the way to a visit to Beijing by President Richard Nixon.... Public diplomacy In international relations, public diplomacy or people's diplomacy, broadly speaking, is the communication with foreign publics to establish a dialogue designed to inform and influence. There is no one definition of Public Diplomacy, and may be easier described than easily defined as definitions... Shuttle diplomacy In diplomacy and international relations, shuttle diplomacy is the action of an outside party in serving as an intermediary between principals in a dispute, without direct principal-to-principal contact... Soft power Soft power is the ability to obtain what one wants through co-option and attraction. It can be contrasted with 'hard power', that is the use of coercion and payment... Track II diplomacy Track II diplomacy is a specific kind of informal diplomacy, in which non-officials engage in dialogue, with the aim of conflict resolution, or confidence-building... United States Cultural Exchange Programs United States cultural exchange programs, particularly those programs with ties to theBureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the United States Department of State, seek to develop cultural understanding between United States citizens and citizens of other countries... |
External links
- ACCD: Association of Certified Commercial Diplomats :The first independent, not-for-profit, global professional body, regulating and providing training and accreditation for commercial and general diplomacy.
- Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva
- ICD: Institute for Cultural Diplomacy a non-profit, non-partisan, non-governmental organizationNon-governmental organizationA non-governmental organization is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any government. The term originated from the United Nations , and is normally used to refer to organizations that do not form part of the government and are...
dedicated to using cultural diplomacy to foster mutual understanding. - The Indian Council for Cultural Relations
- Compendium of cultural policies and trends in Europe
- Middle East Institute: promotes understanding between the peoples of the Middle East and America
- Demos: a think tank for everyday democracy
- Cultures in Harmony: international projects that use music to promote understanding between the U.S. and the rest of the world
- Musicians For Harmony: fostering dialogue and peace through performances, educational programs, and cultural exchange
- Center for World Religions, Diplomacy and Conflict Resolution: educational and research arm of George Mason UniversityGeorge Mason UniversityGeorge Mason University is a public university based in unincorporated Fairfax County, Virginia, United States, south of and adjacent to the city of Fairfax. Additional campuses are located nearby in Arlington County, Prince William County, and Loudoun County...
that mobilizes resources of religion, diplomacy and conflict resolution to support more effective interventions in global problems