Battle of Pelusium (525 BC)
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Pelusium, was the first major battle between the Achaemenid Empire
, and Egypt
. This decisive battle transferred the throne of the Pharaoh
s to Cambyses II of Persia, king of the Persians. It was fought near Pelusium
in 525 B.C.E. The battle was preceded and followed by sieges at Gaza
and Memphis
.
. According to Herodotus the conflict between the Pharaoh Amasis II
of Egypt, and Cambyses II of Persia was a gradual process involving multiple personalities mostly Egyptians. According to Herodotus an Egyptian physician was requested by Cambyses II from Amasis II on good terms, to which Amasis II complied. The physician (most likely an ancient ophthalmologist) resented the forced labor that Amasis had imposed on him, and in retaliation, persuaded Cambyses II to ask of Amasis II a daughter in marriage, knowing how Amaris would dislike losing his daughter to a Persian. Cambyses II complied requesting the hand of the daughter of Amasis in marriage. Amasis, unable to let go of his offspring, and unwilling to start a conflict with the Persians, instead sent an Egyptian girl named Nitetis who was a daughter of an Egyptian named Apries. According to Herodotus, Apries
was the previous pharaoh whom Amasis had defeated and killed, and now whose daughter was to be sent in place of Amasis's own offspring. Once greeted by Cambyses II, as "the daughter of Amasis", Nitetis explained the trickery employed by Amasis to avoid giving away his own daughter to the king. This infuriated Cambyses II who vowed to avenge the insult.
According to Herodotus, another motivation that solidified Cambyses's expedition into Egypt
, was Phanes of Halicarnassus
. Originally a council man and advisor to Amasis, an unknown course of events led to bitterness developing between them to the point that Amasis II sent an Egyptian eunuch
after Phanes, pursuing him to Lydia. Phanes was captured in Lycia
but outwitted his guards by getting them drunk and escaped to Persia
, and assisted the Persian king in all manners of strategy, and was instrumental in shaping his resolve for conquest of Egypt.
Despite having full control over the Neo-Babylonian empire
and its sub-regions including Northern Arabia, Cambyses II sent a message to the King of Arabia requesting safe passage through the desert road from Gaza to Pelusium. The Arabian King, himself an enemy of Amasis II, and glad to facilitate his destruction, granted safe passage to Cambyses II and even supplied him with troops. According to Polybius
, even with all the precautions taken on entering the border of Egypt, only the city of Gaza resisted the Persians, which fell after a long siege. When the news of the impending battle reached Egypt, Psamtik III (Psammenitus), son and heir of Amasis II, gathered the Egyptian army stationing them along the fork of the Red sea
and the river Nile
. Amasis himself died six months before Cambyses reached Egypt.
Psamtik III (Psammenitus) had hoped that Egypt would be able to withstand the threat of the Persian attack by an alliance with the Greeks, but this hope failed, as the Cypriot towns and the tyrant Polycrates of Samos, who possessed a large fleet, now preferred to join the Persians. That one of Egypt's most prominent tactical advisers, Phanes of Halicarnassus
, had already gone over to the Persian side, meant that Psamtik was entirely dependent on his own limited military experience. Polycrates sent 40 triremes (Hellenistic warships) to the Persians. Psamtik III (Psammenitus) in a violent act of revenge, prior to the confrontation with the Persian army would arrest all the sons of Phanes of Halicarnassus, and stand them between two bowls. He would then cut them one by one, draining their blood and mixing it with wine. Psamtik III (Psammenitus) would then drink of it and make every other councilman drink of their blood before the battles
, fifty thousand Egyptians fell, whereas the entire loss on the Persian side was only seven thousand. After this short struggle, the troops of Psamatik III (Psammenitus) fled, and soon the retreat became a complete rout. Disoriented, and fleeing, the Egyptians took shelter in Memphis
. Egyptians were now in a siege in their stronghold in Memphis.
killed during the siege of Memphis, ten Egyptians died, which makes the number dead Egyptians two thousand, that may have been executed at the time or after the siege, because two hundred Mytileneans were killed. Pelusium probably surrendered itself immediately after the battle. The pharaoh was captured after the fall of Memphis, and allowed to live under Persian watch. He would however be later executed after attempting a revolt against the Persians.
visited, who noted that the skulls of the Egyptians were distinguishable from those of the Persians by their superior hardness, a fact confirmed he said by the mummies, and which he ascribed to the Egyptians' shaving their heads from infancy, and to the Persians covering them up with folds of cloth or linen. Polyaenus
claims that, according to legend, Cambyses captured Pelusium by using a clever strategy. The Egyptians regarded certain animals, especially cats, as being sacred, and would not injure them on any account. Polyaenus claims that Cambyses had his men carry the "sacred" animals in front of them to the attack. The Egyptians did not dare to shoot their arrows for fear of wounding the animals, and so Pelusium was stormed successfully. Herodotus, however makes no mention any such strategy. According to Herodotus, dissatisfied with his victory and unable to punish Amasis for his trickery, Cambyses II would come to do, what Herodotus calls, an un-Persian act, by desecrating the tomb of the mummified Amasis II and ordering the burning of the mummy. Cambyses II would then make peace with Libyans accepting their offer for truce. Egypt was now a possession of Persia, and Cambyses II was its Pharaoh. Since defeat of the pharaoh, Persian monarchs would make up Egypt's twenty-seven dynasty (or the first Persian period), acknowledged as pharaohs.
Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire , sometimes known as First Persian Empire and/or Persian Empire, was founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great who overthrew the Median confederation...
, and Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
. This decisive battle transferred the throne of the Pharaoh
Pharaoh
Pharaoh is a title used in many modern discussions of the ancient Egyptian rulers of all periods. The title originates in the term "pr-aa" which means "great house" and describes the royal palace...
s to Cambyses II of Persia, king of the Persians. It was fought near Pelusium
Pelusium
Pelusium was a city in the eastern extremes of Egypt's Nile Delta, 30 km to the southeast of the modern Port Said. Alternative names include Sena and Per-Amun , Pelousion , Sin , Seyân , and Tell el-Farama...
in 525 B.C.E. The battle was preceded and followed by sieges at Gaza
Gaza
Gaza , also referred to as Gaza City, is a Palestinian city in the Gaza Strip, with a population of about 450,000, making it the largest city in the Palestinian territories.Inhabited since at least the 15th century BC,...
and Memphis
Memphis, Egypt
Memphis was the ancient capital of Aneb-Hetch, the first nome of Lower Egypt. Its ruins are located near the town of Helwan, south of Cairo.According to legend related by Manetho, the city was founded by the pharaoh Menes around 3000 BC. Capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom, it remained an...
.
Herodotus on motives and background
The best recount of the events leading to the battle of Pelusium is from Greek historians, particularly HerodotusHerodotus
Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus, Caria and lived in the 5th century BC . He has been called the "Father of History", and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a...
. According to Herodotus the conflict between the Pharaoh Amasis II
Amasis II
Amasis II or Ahmose II was a pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, the successor of Apries at Sais. He was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest.-Life:...
of Egypt, and Cambyses II of Persia was a gradual process involving multiple personalities mostly Egyptians. According to Herodotus an Egyptian physician was requested by Cambyses II from Amasis II on good terms, to which Amasis II complied. The physician (most likely an ancient ophthalmologist) resented the forced labor that Amasis had imposed on him, and in retaliation, persuaded Cambyses II to ask of Amasis II a daughter in marriage, knowing how Amaris would dislike losing his daughter to a Persian. Cambyses II complied requesting the hand of the daughter of Amasis in marriage. Amasis, unable to let go of his offspring, and unwilling to start a conflict with the Persians, instead sent an Egyptian girl named Nitetis who was a daughter of an Egyptian named Apries. According to Herodotus, Apries
Apries
Apries is the name by which Herodotus and Diodorus designate Wahibre Haaibre, Ουαφρης , a pharaoh of Egypt , the fourth king of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt. He was equated with the Waphres of Manetho, who correctly records that he reigned for 19 years...
was the previous pharaoh whom Amasis had defeated and killed, and now whose daughter was to be sent in place of Amasis's own offspring. Once greeted by Cambyses II, as "the daughter of Amasis", Nitetis explained the trickery employed by Amasis to avoid giving away his own daughter to the king. This infuriated Cambyses II who vowed to avenge the insult.
According to Herodotus, another motivation that solidified Cambyses's expedition into Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh...
, was Phanes of Halicarnassus
Phanes of Halicarnassus
Phanes of Halicarnassus was a wise council man, a tactician, and a mercenary from Halicarnassus, serving the Egyptian pharaoh Amasis II. Most of what history recounts of Phanes is from the account of Herodotus in his grand historical text, The Histories...
. Originally a council man and advisor to Amasis, an unknown course of events led to bitterness developing between them to the point that Amasis II sent an Egyptian eunuch
Eunuch
A eunuch is a person born male most commonly castrated, typically early enough in his life for this change to have major hormonal consequences...
after Phanes, pursuing him to Lydia. Phanes was captured in Lycia
Lycia
Lycia Lycian: Trm̃mis; ) was a region in Anatolia in what are now the provinces of Antalya and Muğla on the southern coast of Turkey. It was a federation of ancient cities in the region and later a province of the Roman Empire...
but outwitted his guards by getting them drunk and escaped to Persia
Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire , sometimes known as First Persian Empire and/or Persian Empire, was founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great who overthrew the Median confederation...
, and assisted the Persian king in all manners of strategy, and was instrumental in shaping his resolve for conquest of Egypt.
Despite having full control over the Neo-Babylonian empire
Neo-Babylonian Empire
The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 626 BC and ended in 539 BC. During the preceding three centuries, Babylonia had been ruled by their fellow Akkadian speakers and northern neighbours, Assyria. Throughout that time Babylonia...
and its sub-regions including Northern Arabia, Cambyses II sent a message to the King of Arabia requesting safe passage through the desert road from Gaza to Pelusium. The Arabian King, himself an enemy of Amasis II, and glad to facilitate his destruction, granted safe passage to Cambyses II and even supplied him with troops. According to Polybius
Polybius
Polybius , Greek ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 220–146 BC in detail. The work describes in part the rise of the Roman Republic and its gradual domination over Greece...
, even with all the precautions taken on entering the border of Egypt, only the city of Gaza resisted the Persians, which fell after a long siege. When the news of the impending battle reached Egypt, Psamtik III (Psammenitus), son and heir of Amasis II, gathered the Egyptian army stationing them along the fork of the Red sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
and the river Nile
Nile
The Nile is a major north-flowing river in North Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. It is long. It runs through the ten countries of Sudan, South Sudan, Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda and Egypt.The Nile has two major...
. Amasis himself died six months before Cambyses reached Egypt.
Psamtik III (Psammenitus) had hoped that Egypt would be able to withstand the threat of the Persian attack by an alliance with the Greeks, but this hope failed, as the Cypriot towns and the tyrant Polycrates of Samos, who possessed a large fleet, now preferred to join the Persians. That one of Egypt's most prominent tactical advisers, Phanes of Halicarnassus
Phanes of Halicarnassus
Phanes of Halicarnassus was a wise council man, a tactician, and a mercenary from Halicarnassus, serving the Egyptian pharaoh Amasis II. Most of what history recounts of Phanes is from the account of Herodotus in his grand historical text, The Histories...
, had already gone over to the Persian side, meant that Psamtik was entirely dependent on his own limited military experience. Polycrates sent 40 triremes (Hellenistic warships) to the Persians. Psamtik III (Psammenitus) in a violent act of revenge, prior to the confrontation with the Persian army would arrest all the sons of Phanes of Halicarnassus, and stand them between two bowls. He would then cut them one by one, draining their blood and mixing it with wine. Psamtik III (Psammenitus) would then drink of it and make every other councilman drink of their blood before the battles
The battle
The decisive military conflict happened at Pelusium. The engagement between the two armies was not so much a battle as a carnage. Egypt at the hands of a young inexperienced prince, was no match for the Persians. No doubt some of the mercenaries made a stout resistance, but they were vastly outnumbered, and were not much better troops than their adversaries. Apparently both sides suffered heavy losses as Herodotus describes a sea of skulls at the Nile basin, upon the remnants of which he remarks on the differences between the Persian and the Egyptian heads. According to CtesiasCtesias
Ctesias of Cnidus was a Greek physician and historian from Cnidus in Caria. Ctesias, who lived in the 5th century BC, was physician to Artaxerxes Mnemon, whom he accompanied in 401 BC on his expedition against his brother Cyrus the Younger....
, fifty thousand Egyptians fell, whereas the entire loss on the Persian side was only seven thousand. After this short struggle, the troops of Psamatik III (Psammenitus) fled, and soon the retreat became a complete rout. Disoriented, and fleeing, the Egyptians took shelter in Memphis
Memphis, Egypt
Memphis was the ancient capital of Aneb-Hetch, the first nome of Lower Egypt. Its ruins are located near the town of Helwan, south of Cairo.According to legend related by Manetho, the city was founded by the pharaoh Menes around 3000 BC. Capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom, it remained an...
. Egyptians were now in a siege in their stronghold in Memphis.
Aftermath
According to Herodotus, Cambyses II in a last attempt to bring an end to the struggle sent a Persian herald in a ship to exhort the Egyptians to give up before further bloodshed. Upon sighting the Persian vessel at the port of Memphis, the Egyptians, ran out, attacking the ship and killing every man in it, carrying their torn limbs with them back to the city. As Cambyses advanced to Memphis, it is said that for every MytilenianMytilene
Mytilene is a town and a former municipality on the island of Lesbos, North Aegean, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Lesbos, of which it is a municipal unit. It is the capital of the island of Lesbos. Mytilene, whose name is pre-Greek, is built on the...
killed during the siege of Memphis, ten Egyptians died, which makes the number dead Egyptians two thousand, that may have been executed at the time or after the siege, because two hundred Mytileneans were killed. Pelusium probably surrendered itself immediately after the battle. The pharaoh was captured after the fall of Memphis, and allowed to live under Persian watch. He would however be later executed after attempting a revolt against the Persians.
Herodotus on the battle
The fields around were strewn with the bones of the combatants when HerodotusHerodotus
Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus, Caria and lived in the 5th century BC . He has been called the "Father of History", and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a...
visited, who noted that the skulls of the Egyptians were distinguishable from those of the Persians by their superior hardness, a fact confirmed he said by the mummies, and which he ascribed to the Egyptians' shaving their heads from infancy, and to the Persians covering them up with folds of cloth or linen. Polyaenus
Polyaenus
Polyaenus or Polyenus vs. e]]; , "many proverbs") was a 2nd century Macedonian author, known best for his Stratagems in War , which has been preserved. The Suda calls him a rhetorician, and Polyaenus himself writes that he was accustomed to plead causes before the emperor...
claims that, according to legend, Cambyses captured Pelusium by using a clever strategy. The Egyptians regarded certain animals, especially cats, as being sacred, and would not injure them on any account. Polyaenus claims that Cambyses had his men carry the "sacred" animals in front of them to the attack. The Egyptians did not dare to shoot their arrows for fear of wounding the animals, and so Pelusium was stormed successfully. Herodotus, however makes no mention any such strategy. According to Herodotus, dissatisfied with his victory and unable to punish Amasis for his trickery, Cambyses II would come to do, what Herodotus calls, an un-Persian act, by desecrating the tomb of the mummified Amasis II and ordering the burning of the mummy. Cambyses II would then make peace with Libyans accepting their offer for truce. Egypt was now a possession of Persia, and Cambyses II was its Pharaoh. Since defeat of the pharaoh, Persian monarchs would make up Egypt's twenty-seven dynasty (or the first Persian period), acknowledged as pharaohs.
Sources
- Herodotus. The Histories. Suffolk, England: Penguin Books, 1975.
- Dupuy, R. Ernest, and Trevor N. Dupuy. The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the present. New York: Harper and Row, 1977.
- Fuller, J.F.C. A Military History of the Western World, Volume One. N.P.: Minerva Press, 1954.
- Harbottle, Thomas. Dictionary of Battles. New York: Stein and Day, 1971.