William Smith Culbertson
Encyclopedia
William Smith Culbertson was an American diplomat and soldier.
He was born in Greensburg
, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
, August 5, 1884 and died in 1966. U.S. Ambassador, Romania, 1925–1928, Chile, 1928 - 1933. Colonel, United States Army
. President, United States Tariff Commission 1922 - 1925. Member, United States Tariff Commission, 1916–1922, American Bar Association, Council on Foreign Relations
, American Economic Association
, Phi Alpha Delta
, Phi Beta Kappa. Graduate, Yale Law School
, J.D., College of Emporia
, B.A.
, Culbertson's 153-page essay on Alexander Hamilton
was awarded the John Addison Porter Prize. The Porter Prize is awarded by The Kingsley Trust Association (The Scroll and Key Society
) for a work of scholarship which, through original effort, gathers and relates facts and/or principles to make a product of general human interest. A review of this work by Worthington C. Ford appeared in September 1912. Ford reviewed the essay positively, noting nationalism
is the "key-note" of the essay, lauding its "breadth and candor," but stating that "more could be made of Hamilton's own venture into a manufacturing concern..."
, Massachusetts
. In addition to the roundtable conferences, there were two open conferences, one of which was led by Culbertson who at that time was president of the U.S. Tariff Commission
(now called the United States International Trade Commission). Culbertson discussed "Problems of Raw Materials and Foodstuffs in the Commercial Policies of Nations."
economics and international interests. This book shows Culbertson's early leanings toward a U.S. foreign policy of reciprocity
. According to a review by E. L. Bogart of the University of Illinois at Urbana
, Culbertson spends most of the book discussing commercial treaties
, tariffs, and open-door policy. Bogart believes that Culbertson truly understands the "gravity and complexity of the international problems presented by the unequal geographical distribution of raw materials and fuels." He believes that Culbertson disapproves of both laissez-faire economics and economic imperialism
, instead promoting a policy of international cooperation, to be effected through an organization such as the League of Nations
.
reciprocal trade policy. According to a review by George H. E. Smith, Culbertson's thesis is that "[The United States has] become a world state... Our overseas expansion will go on whether we like it or not... Our production, our finance, and our trade then must operate on a world stage. If they are confined within our political frontiers
by a narrow nationalism
, no amount of governmental regulation and of governmental generosity will bring about real prosperity... I have become convinced that we cannot possibly pay out nationally except through a tremendous revival in foreign trade
, both import
s and export
s, which in turn will stimulate and enlarge domestic trade and enterprise." The book continues by discussing the evolution of tariffs and the mechanisms through which they are made, and concludes with suggestions for a permanent foreign trade policy.
and the Middle East
to survey post war prospects for business. This trip also included an independent assignment to France
. According to analysis by John A. DeNovo, the mission revealed a strong belief in the free market for the regulation of international trade, analyzed obstacles to U.S. business in the Middle East, and revealed a vision of expanded U.S. involvement in Middle-East affairs. DeNovo also claims that the Culbertson reports were "taken seriously by those charting American economic policies."
in the United States Army
, with a role of influencing the
Eisenhower Administration's global politics
. In 1953, he published Liberation, The Threat and the Challenge of Power, in which he contrasts policies of liberation and containment
of the Soviet Union
. Culbertson supports liberation as a method of avoiding preemptive war
and argues that containment would do nothing to stem Soviet development of "super-weapons
," but that American policies have considerable bearing on the practicality of liberation. Stefan T. Possony in a review of this work writes:
He was born in Greensburg
Greensburg, Pennsylvania
Greensburg is a city in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, United States, and a part of the Pittsburgh Metro Area. The city is named after Nathanael Greene, a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War...
, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 369,993 people, 149,813 households, and 104,569 families residing in the county. The population density was 361 people per square mile . There were 161,058 housing units at an average density of 157 per square mile...
, August 5, 1884 and died in 1966. U.S. Ambassador, Romania, 1925–1928, Chile, 1928 - 1933. Colonel, United States Army
United States Army
The United States Army is the main branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military, and is one of seven U.S. uniformed services...
. President, United States Tariff Commission 1922 - 1925. Member, United States Tariff Commission, 1916–1922, American Bar Association, Council on Foreign Relations
Council on Foreign Relations
The Council on Foreign Relations is an American nonprofit nonpartisan membership organization, publisher, and think tank specializing in U.S. foreign policy and international affairs...
, American Economic Association
American Economic Association
The American Economic Association, or AEA, is a learned society in the field of economics, headquartered in Nashville, Tennessee. It publishes one of the most prestigious academic journals in economics: the American Economic Review...
, Phi Alpha Delta
Phi Alpha Delta
ΦAΔ , or P.A.D., is the largest co-ed professional law fraternity in the United States of America. Phi Alpha Delta has members who are university students, law school students, lawyers, judges, senators, and even presidents. It was founded in 1902 and today has over 300,000 initiated members...
, Phi Beta Kappa. Graduate, Yale Law School
Yale Law School
Yale Law School, or YLS, is the law school of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Established in 1824, it offers the J.D., LL.M., J.S.D. and M.S.L. degrees in law. It also hosts visiting scholars, visiting researchers and a number of legal research centers...
, J.D., College of Emporia
College of Emporia
The College of Emporia was established in 1882 in Emporia, Kansas, and was associated with the Presbyterian church. The college officially closed in 1974. The college campus was purchased by The Way International for $694,000 and was operated as the Way College of Emporia from 1975 until 1989...
, B.A.
Alexander Hamilton Essay, 1910
In 1910, after graduation from the Yale Law SchoolYale Law School
Yale Law School, or YLS, is the law school of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Established in 1824, it offers the J.D., LL.M., J.S.D. and M.S.L. degrees in law. It also hosts visiting scholars, visiting researchers and a number of legal research centers...
, Culbertson's 153-page essay on Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton was a Founding Father, soldier, economist, political philosopher, one of America's first constitutional lawyers and the first United States Secretary of the Treasury...
was awarded the John Addison Porter Prize. The Porter Prize is awarded by The Kingsley Trust Association (The Scroll and Key Society
Scroll and Key
The Scroll and Key Society is a secret society, founded in 1842 at Yale University, in New Haven, Connecticut. It is the wealthiest and second oldest Yale secret society...
) for a work of scholarship which, through original effort, gathers and relates facts and/or principles to make a product of general human interest. A review of this work by Worthington C. Ford appeared in September 1912. Ford reviewed the essay positively, noting nationalism
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
is the "key-note" of the essay, lauding its "breadth and candor," but stating that "more could be made of Hamilton's own venture into a manufacturing concern..."
William S. Culbertson Papers, 1923
Culbertson was a member of the Institute of Politics, an organization that promoted the study of international problems and relations "with a view to creating a more sympathetic understanding of the ideals and policies of other nations." To carry out its ideas, the Institute of Politics in July and August 1923 held a series of roundtable conferences at Williams CollegeWilliams College
Williams College is a private liberal arts college located in Williamstown, Massachusetts, United States. It was established in 1793 with funds from the estate of Ephraim Williams. Originally a men's college, Williams became co-educational in 1970. Fraternities were also phased out during this...
, Massachusetts
Massachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...
. In addition to the roundtable conferences, there were two open conferences, one of which was led by Culbertson who at that time was president of the U.S. Tariff Commission
United States International Trade Commission
The United States International Trade Commission is an independent, bi-partisan, quasi-judicial, federal agency of the United States that provides trade expertise to both the legislative and executive branches. Further, the agency determines the impact of imports on U.S...
(now called the United States International Trade Commission). Culbertson discussed "Problems of Raw Materials and Foodstuffs in the Commercial Policies of Nations."
International Economic Policies, A Survey of the Economics of Diplomacy, 1925
In 1925, Culbertson published a book looking at post World War IWorld War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
economics and international interests. This book shows Culbertson's early leanings toward a U.S. foreign policy of reciprocity
Reciprocity (international relations)
In international relations and treaties, the principle of reciprocity states that favours, benefits, or penalties that are granted by one state to the citizens or legal entities of another, should be returned in kind....
. According to a review by E. L. Bogart of the University of Illinois at Urbana
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign is a large public research-intensive university in the state of Illinois, United States. It is the flagship campus of the University of Illinois system...
, Culbertson spends most of the book discussing commercial treaties
Treaty
A treaty is an express agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. A treaty may also be known as an agreement, protocol, covenant, convention or exchange of letters, among other terms...
, tariffs, and open-door policy. Bogart believes that Culbertson truly understands the "gravity and complexity of the international problems presented by the unequal geographical distribution of raw materials and fuels." He believes that Culbertson disapproves of both laissez-faire economics and economic imperialism
Economic imperialism
Economic imperialism in contemporary economics refers to economic analysis of seemingly non-economic aspects of life, such as crime, law, the family, prejudice, tastes, irrational behavior, politics, sociology,culture, religion, war, and science and research.Its emergence has been attributed...
, instead promoting a policy of international cooperation, to be effected through an organization such as the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
.
Reciprocity, A National Policy for Foreign Trade, 1937
In 1937, Culbertson published a book supporting the HullCordell Hull
Cordell Hull was an American politician from the U.S. state of Tennessee. He is best known as the longest-serving Secretary of State, holding the position for 11 years in the administration of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt during much of World War II...
reciprocal trade policy. According to a review by George H. E. Smith, Culbertson's thesis is that "[The United States has] become a world state... Our overseas expansion will go on whether we like it or not... Our production, our finance, and our trade then must operate on a world stage. If they are confined within our political frontiers
Border
Borders define geographic boundaries of political entities or legal jurisdictions, such as governments, sovereign states, federated states and other subnational entities. Some borders—such as a state's internal administrative borders, or inter-state borders within the Schengen Area—are open and...
by a narrow nationalism
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
, no amount of governmental regulation and of governmental generosity will bring about real prosperity... I have become convinced that we cannot possibly pay out nationally except through a tremendous revival in foreign trade
International trade
International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories. In most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product...
, both import
Import
The term import is derived from the conceptual meaning as to bring in the goods and services into the port of a country. The buyer of such goods and services is referred to an "importer" who is based in the country of import whereas the overseas based seller is referred to as an "exporter". Thus...
s and export
Export
The term export is derived from the conceptual meaning as to ship the goods and services out of the port of a country. The seller of such goods and services is referred to as an "exporter" who is based in the country of export whereas the overseas based buyer is referred to as an "importer"...
s, which in turn will stimulate and enlarge domestic trade and enterprise." The book continues by discussing the evolution of tariffs and the mechanisms through which they are made, and concludes with suggestions for a permanent foreign trade policy.
The Culbertson Economic Mission, 1944 - 1945
In the fall of 1944, Culbertson led an economic mission on behalf of the United States to North AfricaNorth Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
and the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
to survey post war prospects for business. This trip also included an independent assignment to France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
. According to analysis by John A. DeNovo, the mission revealed a strong belief in the free market for the regulation of international trade, analyzed obstacles to U.S. business in the Middle East, and revealed a vision of expanded U.S. involvement in Middle-East affairs. DeNovo also claims that the Culbertson reports were "taken seriously by those charting American economic policies."
Liberation, The Threat and the Challenge of Power, 1953
Later in his life, Culbertson became a ColonelColonel
Colonel , abbreviated Col or COL, is a military rank of a senior commissioned officer. It or a corresponding rank exists in most armies and in many air forces; the naval equivalent rank is generally "Captain". It is also used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures...
in the United States Army
United States Army
The United States Army is the main branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military, and is one of seven U.S. uniformed services...
, with a role of influencing the
Eisenhower Administration's global politics
Global politics
Global politics is the discipline that studies the political and economical patterns of the world. It studies the relationships between cities, nation-states, shell-states, multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations and international organizations.It has been argued that global...
. In 1953, he published Liberation, The Threat and the Challenge of Power, in which he contrasts policies of liberation and containment
Containment
Containment was a United States policy using military, economic, and diplomatic strategies to stall the spread of communism, enhance America’s security and influence abroad, and prevent a "domino effect". A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet...
of the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
. Culbertson supports liberation as a method of avoiding preemptive war
Preemptive war
A preemptive war is a war that is commenced in an attempt to repel or defeat a perceived inevitable offensive or invasion, or to gain a strategic advantage in an impending war before that threat materializes. It is a war which preemptively 'breaks the peace'. The term: 'preemptive war' is...
and argues that containment would do nothing to stem Soviet development of "super-weapons
Weapons of mass destruction
A weapon of mass destruction is a weapon that can kill and bring significant harm to a large number of humans and/or cause great damage to man-made structures , natural structures , or the biosphere in general...
," but that American policies have considerable bearing on the practicality of liberation. Stefan T. Possony in a review of this work writes:
"Colonel Culbertson views liberation as just such a practical though complex working philosophy -- the danger, as he sees it, is in failing to recognize that we no longer can espouse the moral foundations of our way of life without also embracing liberation. We cannot turn our backs on a world that is half slave and hope to retain our own freedom. Such an attitude does not necessarily entail global war. Colonel Culbertson would keep his powder dry first and foremost, but he also visualizes a step-by-step use of all our vast strengths -- moral, economic, political, spiritual and legal -- in a gradual and controlled manner. Nor is he wanting for means to employ these strengths: trade, dollar power, education, cultural intercourse, technology, nuclear energyNuclear powerNuclear power is the use of sustained nuclear fission to generate heat and electricity. Nuclear power plants provide about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for about 50% of nuclear generated electricity...
-- all these and many more would be used to improve the lot of underdeveloped peoplesThird WorldThe term Third World arose during the Cold War to define countries that remained non-aligned with either capitalism and NATO , or communism and the Soviet Union...
, to promote industrial expansion and to counter the threat of communismCommunismCommunism is a social, political and economic ideology that aims at the establishment of a classless, moneyless, revolutionary and stateless socialist society structured upon common ownership of the means of production...
at home and abroad. In this respect, Colonel Culbertson must qualify as one of that small but distinguished group who anticipated President Dwight D. EisenhowerDwight D. EisenhowerDwight David "Ike" Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States, from 1953 until 1961. He was a five-star general in the United States Army...
's atomic peacefare program."