Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was a
five-star generalGeneral of the Army is a five-star general officer and is the second highest possible rank in the United States Army. A special rank of General of the Armies, which ranks above General of the Army, does exist but has only been conferred twice in the history of the Army...
in the
United States ArmyThe United States Army is the branch of the United States Military responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military and is one of seven uniformed services...
and the
34th President of the United StatesThe President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in the United States by influence and recognition...
, from 1953 until 1961. During
the Second World WarWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, he served as Supreme Commander of the
Allied forcesThe Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . The involvement of the Allies in World War II was either natural and inevitable they were invaded or under the direct threat of invasion by the Axis or compelled by concerns that the Axis powers...
in
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains , and the Black Sea to the southeast...
, with responsibility for planning and supervising the successful invasion of France and
GermanyThe Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine was one of the final Allied phases in World War II of the Western European Campaign.This phase spans from the end of the Operation Overlord incorporating the German's winter counter offensive through the Ardennes up to the Allies preparing to cross the...
in 1944–45. In 1951, he became the first supreme commander of NATO.
As President, he oversaw the cease-fire of the
Korean WarThe Korean War is a war that started between North Korea and South Korea on 25 June 1950 and paused with an armistice signed 27 July, 1953...
, maintained pressure on the
Soviet UnionThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the , tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common short name is Soviet Union, from , Sovetskiy Soyuz...
during the
Cold WarThe Cold War was the continuing state of political conflict, military tension, and economic competition existing after World War II , primarily between the USSR and its satellite states, and the powers of the Western world, including the United States...
, made
nuclear weaponsThe United States was the first country in the world to develop nuclear weapons, and is the only country to have used them as actual weapons, during the two bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in World War II. Before and during the Cold War it conducted over a thousand nuclear tests and developed...
a higher defense priority, launched the
Space RaceThe Space Race was an informal competition between the United States and the Soviet Union, as each side tried to match or better the other's accomplishments in exploring outer space...
, enlarged the
Social SecuritySocial Security in the United States currently refers to the federal Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance program....
program, and began the
Interstate Highway SystemThe Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways, commonly called the Interstate Highway System , is a network of limited-access highways in the United States that is named for President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who championed its formation...
. He was the last
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
veteranA war veteran is a person who has or is serving in the armed forces, or a person who has had long service or experience in an occupation or office....
to serve as U.S. president, and the last president born in the
19th centuryThe 19th century was a period in history marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Ottoman, Holy Roman and Mughal empires...
. Eisenhower
ranksIn political science, historical rankings of United States Presidents are surveys conducted in order to construct rankings of the success of individuals who have served as President of the United States. Ranking systems are usually based on surveys of academic historians and political scientists or...
highly among former U.S. presidents in terms of approval rating. He was also the first term limited president in accordance with the 22nd amendment.
Early life and family
Eisenhower was born
David Dwight Eisenhower in
Denison, TexasDenison is a city in Grayson County, Texas, United States. The city's estimated population as of 2007 was 24,103. It is one of two principal cities in the Sherman-Denison Metropolitan Statistical Area.-History:...
, the first president born in that state. He was the third of seven sons born to David Jacob Eisenhower and
Ida Elizabeth StoverIda Elizabeth Stover Eisenhower was a lifelong pacifist, and the mother of U.S. President Dwight David Eisenhower.She was born in Mount Sidney, Virginia, the only daughter of Elizabeth Ida Juda Link and Simon P. Stover...
, of German, English and Swiss ancestry. The house in which he was born has been preserved as
Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic SiteEisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site, located at 208 East Day Street in Denison, Texas, is the birthplace of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was born in the house on October 14, 1890, the first United States President to be born in Texas....
and is operated by the
Texas Historical CommissionThe Texas Historical Commission is an agency dedicated to historic preservation within the state of Texas. It administers the National Register of Historic Places for sites in Texas....
.
He was named David Dwight and was called Dwight; he reversed the order of his given names when he entered
West PointThe United States Military Academy at West Point is a four-year coeducational federal service academy located at West Point, New York. Established in 1802, USMA is the oldest of the United States's five service academies. The military garrison at West Point was occupied in 1778 and played a key...
, which is also where he received his nickname, "Ike".
Eisenhower's paternal ancestors can be traced back to Hans Nicolas Eisenhauer, whose surname is German for "iron worker." Hans Eisenhauer and his family emigrated from
KarlsbrunnKarlsbrunn is a German village, part of the municipality of Großrosseln, situated in the district of Saarbrücken, part of the federal state of Saarland. Its population is about 1,100 inhabitants.-Geography:...
(
SaarlandSaarland is one of the 16 federal states of Germany. The capital is Saarbrücken. It has an area of 2570 km² and 1,045,000 inhabitants. In both area and population, it is the smallest of the German Flächenländer , i.e., those that are not city-states...
), Germany, to
Lancaster, PennsylvaniaLancaster is a city in the South Central part of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and is the county seat of Lancaster County. With a population of 55,351, it is the eighth largest city in Pennsylvania, behind Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, Reading, Bethlehem, and Scranton...
, in 1741. Descendants made their way west. Eisenhower's family settled in
Abilene, KansasAbilene is a city in Dickinson County, Kansas, United States, 163 miles west of Kansas City. In 1900, 3,507 people lived here. The population was 6,543 at the 2000 census...
, in 1892. His father, David Eisenhower, was a college-educated engineer. Eisenhower graduated from
Abilene High SchoolAbilene High School is a 4 year public high school located in Abilene in Dickinson County, Kansas, as part of Abilene Unified School District #435...
in 1909.
Eisenhower married
Mamie Geneva DoudMamie Geneva Doud-Eisenhower was the wife of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and First Lady of the United States from 1953 to 1961.-Early life:...
(1896–1979) of Denver, Colorado, on July 1, 1916. The couple had two sons. Doud Dwight Eisenhower was born September 24, 1917, and died of
scarlet feverScarlet fever is a disease caused by an erythrogenic exotoxin released by Streptococcus pyogenes. The term Scarlatina may be used interchangeably with Scarlet Fever, though it is commonly used to indicate the less acute form of Scarlet Fever that is often seen since the beginning of the twentieth...
on January 2, 1921, at the age of three. Their second son,
John Sheldon Doud EisenhowerJohn Sheldon Doud Eisenhower is the son of President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his wife Mamie. He is a retired United States Army officer and the author of several books of military history. He served as the U.S...
, was born the following year on August 3, 1922; John served in the
United States ArmyThe United States Army is the branch of the United States Military responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military and is one of seven uniformed services...
(retiring as a brigadier general from the Army reserve), became an author, and served as
U.S. Ambassador to BelgiumThis is a list of diplomatic missions of Belgium, excluding honorary consulates. Belgium is unique in having two networks of diplomatic representation - one for the Belgian state and another for Dutch-speaking community of Flanders...
from 1969 to 1971. John, coincidentally, graduated from West Point on D-Day, June 6, 1944, and was married to Barbara Jean Thompson in a June wedding in 1947. John and Barbara had four children:
Dwight David II "David"Dwight David Eisenhower II is an American author, public policy fellow, and namesake of the U.S. Presidential retreat, Camp David. He is the grandson of the 34th President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower, and the son-in-law of the 37th President of the United States Richard M...
, Barbara Ann,
Susan ElaineSusan Elaine Eisenhower is a consultant, author, and expert on international security and relations between the Russian Federation and the United States of America. She is the daughter of John Eisenhower, and the granddaughter of President Dwight Eisenhower...
and Mary Jean. David, after whom
Camp DavidNaval Support Facility Thurmont, popularly known as Camp David, is a mountain based military camp in Frederick County, Maryland used as a country retreat and for high alert protection of the President of the United States and his guests....
is named, married
Richard NixonRichard Milhous Nixon was the 37th President of the United States and is the only president to resign the office. He was also the 36th Vice President of the United States ....
's daughter
JulieJulie Nixon Eisenhower is the second daughter of Richard and Patricia Ryan Nixon and younger sister of Patricia Nixon Cox. In 1968, she married David Eisenhower. While her father served as President, she wrote several books and worked as Assistant Managing Editor of the Saturday Evening Post...
in 1968.
Religion
Eisenhower's paternal ancestor, Hans Nicholas Eisenhauer, was probably of
LutheranLutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the 16th century German reformer Martin Luther. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the Protestant Reformation...
or Reformed Protestant practice. Eisenhower's mother, Ida E. Stover Eisenhower, previously a member of the
River BrethrenThe River Brethren is a name used to indicate certain Christian groups originating in 1770, during a revival movement among German colonizers in Pennsylvania....
sect of the
MennoniteThe Mennonites are a group of Christian Anabaptist denominations named after the Frisian Menno Simons , who, through his writings, articulated and thereby formalized the teachings of earlier Swiss founders...
s, joined the
Bible Students which would evolve into what is now known as
Jehovah's WitnessesJehovah's Witnesses is a restorationist, millenarian Christian denomination. The religion reports worldwide membership of over 7 million adherents involved in evangelism; they report convention attendance of over 12 million, and annual Memorial attendance of over 17 million...
between 1895 and 1900, when Eisenhower was a child. The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915.
When Eisenhower joined the
U.S. Military AcademyThe United States Military Academy at West Point is a four-year coeducational federal service academy located at West Point, New York. Established in 1802, USMA is the oldest of the United States's five service academies. The military garrison at West Point was occupied in 1778 and played a key...
at
West PointWest Point is a federal military reservation located North of the Village of Highland Falls in Orange County, New York, United States. The population was 7,138 at the 2000 census...
,
New YorkNew York is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous. The state is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
in 1911, his ties to Jehovah’s Witnesses were weakened because of the group's anti-
militarist stanceMilitarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests....
. By 1915, his parents' home no longer served as the meeting hall. All the men in the household abandoned the Witnesses as adults. Some hid their previous affiliation. At his death in 1942, Eisenhower's father was given a
funeralA funeral is a ceremony marking a person's death. Funerary customs comprise the complex of beliefs and practices used by a culture to remember the dead, from the funeral itself, to various monuments, prayers, and rituals undertaken in their honour. These customs vary widely between cultures, and...
service as though he remained one of Jehovah's Witnesses. Eisenhower's mother continued as an active Witness until her death. Despite their differences in religious beliefs, Eisenhower enjoyed a close relationship with his mother.
Eisenhower was baptized, confirmed, and became a
communicantThe Eucharist, also called Holy Communion, Sacrament of the Table, the Blessed Sacrament, or The Lord's Supper and other names, is a Christian sacrament or ordinance, generally considered to be a commemoration of the Last Supper, the final meal that Jesus Christ shared with his disciples before his...
in the
PresbyterianPresbyterianism is the religion of a number of different Christian churches adhering to the Calvinist theological tradition within Protestantism, and organized according to a characteristic Presbyterian polity...
Church in a single ceremony on February 1, 1953, just 12 days after his first inauguration. He is the only president known to have undertaken these rites while in office. Eisenhower was instrumental in the addition of the words "
under God" to the
Pledge of AllegianceThe Pledge of Allegiance to the United States is an oath of loyalty to the republic of the United States of America, originally composed by Francis Bellamy in 1892. The Pledge has been modified four times since then, with the most recent change adding the words "under God" in 1954...
in 1954, and the 1956 adoption of "
In God We TrustIn God We Trust is the official motto of the United States and the U.S. state of Florida. The motto first appeared on a United States coin in 1864 during strong Christian sentiment emerging during the Civil War, but In God We Trust did not become the official U.S. national motto until after the...
" as the
mottoA motto is a phrase meant to formally describe the general motivation or intention of a social group or organization. A motto may be in any language, but Latin is the most used...
of the US, and its 1957 introduction on paper currency. In his retirement years, he was a member of the
GettysburgGettysburg is a borough in and the county seat of Adams County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 7,490 at the 2000 census.Although known primarily as an attraction because of its proximity to the Gettysburg Battlefield, site of the Battle of Gettysburg, the borough is also known for...
Presbyterian Church. The chapel at his presidential library is intentionally inter-denominational.
He questioned Billy Graham about how people can be certain they are going to
HeavenHeaven may refer to the physical heavens, the sky or the seemingly endless expanse of the universe beyond. This is the traditional literal meaning of the term in English...
after death.
Eisenhower was sworn into office with his personal
West Point Bible, open to Psalm 33:12, at both his 1953 and 1957
inauguralAn inauguration is a formal ceremony to mark the beginning of a leader's term of office. An example is the ceremony in which the president of the United States officially takes the oath of office....
ceremonies. Additionally for 1953, he included the Bible that
George WashingtonGeorge Washington was the commander of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War and served as the first President of the United States of America...
had used in 1789 (belonging to St. John's Masonic Lodge No. 1), opened to
II ChroniclesThe Books of Chronicles are part of the Hebrew Bible . In the masoretic text, it appears as the first or last book of the Ketuvim...
7:14.
Education
Dwight D. Eisenhower attended
Abilene High SchoolAbilene High School is a 4 year public high school located in Abilene in Dickinson County, Kansas, as part of Abilene Unified School District #435...
in Abilene, Kansas and graduated with the class of 1909. He then took a job as a night foreman at the Belle Springs Creamery.
After Dwight worked for two years to support his brother
EdgarEdgar N. Eisenhower was a lawyer, and the older brother of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. He was born in Hope, Kansas and graduated from the University of Michigan in 1914. He began practicing law in 1915 in Tacoma, Washington and was known as a “shoot from the hip ultraconservative.”-External...
's college education, a friend urged him to apply to the
Naval AcademyThe United States Naval Academy is an undergraduate college in Annapolis, Maryland, United States, that educates and commissions officers of the United States Navy and Marine Corps. The Academy often is referred to simply as "Annapolis". It is also called "The Academy", "The Boat School", or "Canoe...
. Though Eisenhower passed the entrance exam, he was beyond the age of eligibility for admission to the Naval Academy.
Kansas
SenatorThe United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the lower house being the House of Representatives. The composition and powers of the Senate and the House are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution . Each U.S state is represented by two senators,...
Joseph L. BristowJoseph Little Bristow was an American Republican politician from Kansas.Born outside Hazel Green, Kentucky, he moved to Kansas when he was twelve. He graduated from Baker University when he was 25....
recommended Dwight for an appointment to the Military Academy in 1911, which he received. Eisenhower graduated in the upper half of the class of 1915. The 1915 class was known as "
the class the stars fell on"The class the stars fell on" is an expression used to describe the West Point class of 1915. Of the 164 graduates, 59 earned at least one star , the most of any class in the history of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. Two reached the second highest rank, five-star...
", because 59 members eventually became general officers.
Athletic career
Eisenhower long had aspirations of playing
professional baseballBaseball is a team sport which is played by several professional leagues throughout the world. In these leagues, and associated farm teams, players are selected for their talents and are paid to play for a specific team or club system.-North America:...
:
At West Point, Eisenhower tried out for the baseball team but did not make it. He would later say that "not making the baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest." But Eisenhower did make the football team. He started as a varsity running back and linebacker in 1912. One spectacular Eisenhower touchdown won praise from the sports reporter of the New York Herald. In a bit of a fabled match-up, he even tackled the legendary
Jim ThorpeJacobus Franciscus "Jim" Thorpe * Gerasimo and Whiteley. pg. 28
* , americaslibrary.gov, accessed April 23, 2007. was an American athlete...
in a 1912 game. The next week however, Eisenhower hurt his knee after being tackled around the ankles. His knee worsened and became permanently damaged on horseback and in the boxing ring. He would later serve as junior varsity football coach and yell leader.
Controversy persistsThe Eisenhower Baseball Controversy refers to the allegations that the former general and President of the United States, Dwight Eisenhower, played minor league baseball for Junction City in the Central Kansas League the year before he attended the United States Military Academy at West Point. ...
over whether Eisenhower played minor league (semi-professional) baseball for
Junction CityJunction City is a city in Geary County, Kansas, United States. The population was 18,886 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Geary County. Fort Riley, a major U.S...
in the Central Kansas League the year before he attended West Point and played amateur football there.
In 1916, while stationed at
Fort Sam HoustonFort Sam Houston is a U.S. Army post in San Antonio, Texas.Known colloquially as "Fort Sam," it is named for the first President of the Republic of Texas, Sam Houston....
, Eisenhower was football coach for St. Louis College, now
St. Mary's UniversitySt. Mary’s University is a Catholic and Marianist liberal arts institution located on northwest of historic downtown San Antonio. St. Mary’s is a nationally recognized master’s level school ranked among the top colleges in the West for best value and academic reputation by U.S. News and World...
.
Early military career
Eisenhower enrolled at the United States Military Academy at West Point in June 1911. His parents were against militarism, but did not object to his entering West Point because they supported his education. Eisenhower was a strong athlete and enjoyed notable successes in his competitive endeavors.
Eisenhower graduated in 1915. He served with the
infantryInfantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of the Combat Arms they are the backbone of armies...
until 1918 at various camps in
TexasTexas is the second-largest U.S. state in both area and population, and the largest state in the contiguous United States.The name had wide usage among native Americans, meaning "friends" or "allies"...
and
GeorgiaGeorgia is a state in the United States. One of the original Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, it had been the last of the Thirteen Colonies to be established, in 1733. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January...
. During
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, Eisenhower became the #3 leader of the new tank corps and rose to temporary (
Bvt.In many of the world's military establishments, brevet referred to a warrant authorizing a commissioned officer to hold a higher rank temporarily, but usually without receiving the pay of that higher rank. An officer so promoted may be referred to as being brevetted...
)
Lieutenant ColonelIn the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, lieutenant colonel is a field grade military officer rank just above the rank of major and just below the rank of colonel. It is equivalent to the rank of commander in the other uniformed services....
in the
National ArmyThe National Army was the combined conscript and volunteer force that was formed by the United States War Department in 1917 to fight in World War I...
. He spent the war training tank crews in
PennsylvaniaThe Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , often colloquially referred to as PA by natives and Northeasterners, is a state located in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States...
and never saw combat. After the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of captain (and was promoted to
majorIn the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, major is a field grade military officer rank just above the rank of captain and just below the rank of lieutenant colonel. It is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant commander in the other uniformed services.The pay grade for the rank of major...
a few days later) before assuming duties at Camp Meade,
MarylandMaryland is a state located in the Mid Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Virginia, West Virginia and the District of Columbia to the south and west, Pennsylvania to the north, and Delaware to the east. It is comparable in size to the European country of Belgium. According to the U.S...
, where he remained until 1922. His interest in tank warfare was strengthened by many conversations with
George S. PattonGeorge Smith Patton, Jr. was a United States Army officer most famous for his leadership commanding corps and armies as a general in World War II...
and other senior tank leaders; however their ideas on tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors.
Eisenhower became executive officer to General
Fox ConnerFox Conner was a major general of the United States Army. He served as operations officer for the American Expeditionary Force during World War I, but is best remembered as "the man who made Eisenhower".-Early career:...
in the
Panama Canal ZoneThe Panama Canal Zone was a 553 square mile territory inside of Panama, consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending 5 miles on each side of the centerline, but excluding Panama City and Colón, which otherwise would have fallen in part within the limits of the Canal Zone...
, where he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Karl von Clausewitz's
On WarVom Kriege is a book on war and military strategy by Prussian general Carl von Clausewitz, written mostly after the Napoleonic wars, between 1816 and 1830, and published posthumously by his wife in 1832. It has been translated into English several times as On War...
), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking. In 1925–26, he attended the
Command and General Staff CollegeThe U.S. Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas is a United States Army facility that functions as a graduate school for United States Armed Forces and foreign military leaders...
at
Fort LeavenworthFort Leavenworth is a United States Army facility located in Leavenworth County, Kansas in the upper northeast portion of the state. It is the oldest active U.S. Army post west of the Mississippi River, in operation for over 170 years...
, Kansas, and then served as a
battalionA battalion is a military unit of around 1000-1500 soldiers usually consisting of between two and seven companies and typically commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel...
commander at
Fort BenningFort Benning is a United States Army post located southeast of the city of Columbus in Muscogee and Chattahoochee counties in Georgia and Russell County, Alabama...
, Georgia until 1927.
During the late 1920s and early 1930s Eisenhower's career in the peacetime Army stagnated; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs. He was assigned to the
American Battle Monuments CommissionThe American Battle Monuments Commission is a small independent agency of the United States government. Established by Congress in 1923, it is responsible for:...
, directed by General
John J. PershingGeneral of the Armies John Joseph Pershing, Honorary GCB; September 13, 1860 – July 15, 1948, was a general officer in the United States Army. Pershing is the only person to be promoted in his own lifetime to the highest rank ever held in the United States Army—General of the Armies General of the...
, then to the Army War College, and then served as executive officer to General George V. Mosely, Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to 1933. He then served as chief military aide to General
Douglas MacArthurGeneral of the Army Douglas MacArthur was an American general, United Nations general, and Field Marshal of the Philippine Army. He was a Chief of Staff of the United States Army during the 1930s and later played a prominent role in the Pacific theater of World War II...
, Army Chief of Staff, until 1935, when he accompanied MacArthur to the
PhilippinesThe Philippines officially known as the Republic of the Philippines, is a country in Southeast Asia with Manila as its capital city. It comprises 7,107 islands in the western Pacific Ocean....
, where he served as assistant military adviser to the Philippine government. It is sometimes said that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of
Winston ChurchillSir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC was a British politician known chiefly for his leadership of the United Kingdom during World War II. He served as Prime Minister from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. A noted statesman and orator, Churchill was also an officer...
,
George S. PattonGeorge Smith Patton, Jr. was a United States Army officer most famous for his leadership commanding corps and armies as a general in World War II...
and Bernard Law Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower was promoted to lieutenant colonel (in a non-brevet status) in 1936 after sixteen years as a major. He also learned to fly, although he was never rated as a military pilot. He made a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937.
Eisenhower returned to the U.S. in 1939 and held a series of staff positions in
Washington, D.C.Washington, D.C. , formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States, founded on July 16, 1790...
,
CaliforniaCalifornia is the most populous state in the United States, and the third largest by area. California is the second most populous sub-national entity in the Americas, behind only São Paulo, Brazil...
and Texas. In June 1941, he was appointed Chief of Staff to General
Walter KruegerWalter Krueger was an American soldier of German decent and General in the first half of the 20th century. He is best known for his command of the Sixth United States Army in the South West Pacific Area during World War II...
, Commander of the 3rd Army, at
Fort Sam HoustonFort Sam Houston is a U.S. Army post in San Antonio, Texas.Known colloquially as "Fort Sam," it is named for the first President of the Republic of Texas, Sam Houston....
in San Antonio, Texas. He was promoted to
brigadier generalA brigadier general in the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, is a one-star general officer, with the pay grade of O-7. Brigadier general ranks above a colonel and below major general. Brigadier general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the other uniformed services.-...
on October 3, 1941. Although his administrative abilities had been noticed, on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II he had never held an active command and was far from being considered as a potential commander of major operations.
World War II
After the
JapaneseThe Empire of Japan was a Japanese political entity that existed during the period from the...
attack on Pearl HarborThe attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike conducted by the Japanese navy against the United States' naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of Sunday, December 7, 1941 , later resulting in the United...
, Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and
GermanyNazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany between 1933 and 1945, while it was led by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Worker's Party . The name Third Reich refers to the state as the successor to the Holy Roman Empire of the Middle Ages and the German...
. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division, General
Leonard T. GerowLeonard Townsend Gerow was born in Petersburg, Virginia. The name Gerow is derived from the French name "Giraud". Gerow attended high school in Petersburg and then attended the Virginia Military Institute. He was three times elected class president...
, and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Then he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of Operations Division under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall. It was his close association with Marshall that finally brought Eisenhower to senior command positions. Marshall recognized his great organizational and administrative abilities.
In 1942, Eisenhower was appointed Commanding General,
European Theater of OperationsThe European Theater of Operations , is the term used in the United States to refer to US operations north of Italy and the Mediterranean coast, in the European Theatre of World War II.-Definitions:...
(ETOUSA) and was based in
London[]London is the capital of England and the United Kingdom. It has been a major settlement for two millennia, and the history of London goes back to its founding by the Romans, when it was named Londinium. London's core, the ancient City of London, the 'square mile', retains its medieval boundaries...
. In November, he was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied (Expeditionary) Force of the North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters A(E)FHQ. The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British 8th Army, commanded by General Bernard Law Montgomery. The 8th Army had advanced across the
Western DesertThe Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War was the initial stage of the North African Campaign of The Second World War.-Background:From the start, the Western Desert Campaign was a continuous back-and-forth struggle...
from the east and was ready for the start of the
Tunisia CampaignThe Tunisia Campaign was a series of World War II battles that took place in Tunisia in the North African Campaign of World War II, between Axis and Allied forces. The Allies consisted primarily of British Imperial Forces along with American and the French Army...
. Eisenhower gained his fourth star and gave up command of ETOUSA to be commander of NATOUSA. After the capitulation of
AxisThe Axis powers comprised the countries that were opposed to the Allies during World War II. The three major Axis powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan—were part of a military alliance on the signing of the Tripartite Pact in September 1940, which officially founded the Axis powers...
forces in
North AfricaNorth Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa.Geopolitically, the UN definition of Northern Africa includes the following seven countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia,Mauritania, and...
, Eisenhower remained in command of the renamed
Mediterranean Theater of OperationsThe Mediterranean Theater of Operations was originally called North African Theater of Operations and is an American term for the conflict that took place between the Allies and Axis Powers in North Africa and Italy during World War II...
(MTO), keeping the operational title and continued in command of NATOUSA redesignated MTOUSA. In this position he oversaw the invasion of Sicily and the
invasion of the Italian mainlandThe Allied invasion of Italy, was the Allied landing on mainland Italy on September 3, 1943, by General Harold Alexander's 15th Army Group during World War II. The operation followed the successful invasion of Sicily during the Italian Campaign...
.
In December 1943, it was announced that Eisenhower would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. In January 1944, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the
Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary ForceSupreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force , was the headquarters of the Commander of Allied forces in north west Europe, from late 1943 until the end of World War II. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was in command of SHAEF throughout its existence...
(SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. In these positions he was charged with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name
Operation OverlordOperation Overlord was the code name for the invasion of western Europe during World War II by Allied forces. The operation began on 6 June 1944 with the Normandy Landings when an airborne assault preceded an amphibious assault...
, the liberation of western Europe and the invasion of Germany. A month after the Normandy
D-DayD-Day is a term often used in military parlance to denote the day on which a combat attack or operation is to be initiated. "D-Day" often represents a variable, designating the day upon which some significant event will occur or has occurred; see Military designation of days and hours for similar...
landings on June 6, 1944, the
invasion of southern FranceOperation Dragoon was the Allied invasion of southern France, on August 15, 1944, as part of World War II. The invasion took place between Toulon and Cannes.- Background :...
took place, and control of the forces which took part in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. From then until the end of the War in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower through SHAEF had supreme command of all operational Allied forces
2, and through his command of ETOUSA, administrative command of all U.S. forces, on the
Western FrontThe Western Front of the European Theatre of World War II encompassed, Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, France, and west Germany. The Western Front was marked by two phases of large-scale ground combat operations...
north of the
AlpsThe Alps are one of the great mountain range systems of Europe, stretching from Austria and Slovenia in the east; through Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Germany; to France in the west....
.
As recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to
General of the ArmyGeneral of the Army is a five-star general officer and is the second highest possible rank in the United States Army. A special rank of General of the Armies, which ranks above General of the Army, does exist but has only been conferred twice in the history of the Army...
equivalent to the rank of
Field MarshalField Marshal is a military officer rank. Today, it is the highest rank in the armies in which it is used, one step above a general or colonel-general.-Usage and hierarchical position:...
in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He dealt skillfully with difficult subordinates such as
Omar BradleyGeneral of the Army Omar Nelson Bradley was one of the main U.S. Army field commanders in North Africa and Europe during World War II and a General of the Army in the United States Army...
and
PattonGeorge Smith Patton, Jr. was a United States Army officer most famous for his leadership commanding corps and armies as a general in World War II...
, and allies such as
Winston ChurchillSir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC was a British politician known chiefly for his leadership of the United Kingdom during World War II. He served as Prime Minister from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. A noted statesman and orator, Churchill was also an officer...
, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General
Charles de GaulleCharles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II...
. He had fundamental disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He negotiated with
SovietThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the , tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common short name is Soviet Union, from , Sovetskiy Soyuz...
Marshal ZhukovMarshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov, honorary GCB was a Russian career officer in the Red Army who, in the course of World War II, played an important role in leading the Red Army through much of Eastern Europe to liberate the Soviet Union and other nations from the Axis...
, and such was the confidence that President
Franklin D. RooseveltFranklin Delano Roosevelt , the only U.S. President elected to more than two terms, was a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic crisis and world war...
had in him, he sometimes worked directly with
StalinJoseph Stalin was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953...
, much to the chagrin of the British High Command who disliked being bypassed. During the advance towards Berlin, he was notified by General Bradley that Allied forces would suffer an estimated 100,000 casualties before taking the city. The Soviet Army sustained 80,000 casualties during the fighting in and around Berlin, the last large number of casualties suffered in the war against Nazism.
It was never certain that
Operation OverlordOperation Overlord was the code name for the invasion of western Europe during World War II by Allied forces. The operation began on 6 June 1944 with the Normandy Landings when an airborne assault preceded an amphibious assault...
would succeed. The seriousness surrounding the entire decision, including the timing and the location of the Normandy invasion, might be summarized by a second shorter speech that Eisenhower wrote in advance, in case he needed it. Long after the successful landings on D-Day and the
BBCThe British Broadcasting Corporation, usually referred to by its abbreviation as the "BBC", is the longest established and largest broadcaster in the world...
broadcast of Eisenhower's brief speech concerning them, the never-used second speech was found in a shirt pocket by an
aideAn aide-de-camp is a personal assistant, secretary, or adjutant to a person of high rank, usually a senior military officer or a head of state...
. It read:
- Our landings in the Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone.
Occupation of Germany
Eisenhower served as Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army from 1945 to 1948.
Following the German
unconditional surrenderUnconditional surrender is a surrender without conditions, in which no guarantees are given to the surrendering party except for those provided by international law. Announcing that only unconditional surrender is acceptable puts psychological pressure on a weaker adversary...
on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower was appointed Military Governor of the
U.S. Occupation ZoneThe Allied powers who defeated Nazi Germany in World War II divided the country west of the Oder-Neisse line into four occupation zones for administrative purposes during the period 1945–1949. In the closing weeks of fighting in Europe, American forces had pushed beyond the previously agreed...
, based in Frankfurt am Main. Germany was divided into four Occupation Zones, one each for the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. Upon full discovery of the death camps that were part of the
Final SolutionThe Final Solution was Nazi Germany's plan and execution of the systematic genocide of European Jews during World War II, resulting in the final, most deadly phase of the Holocaust...
(
HolocaustThe Holocaust , also known as The Shoah is the term generally used to describe the genocide of approximately six million European Jews during World War II, a program of systematic state-sponsored extermination by Nazi Germany,...
), he ordered camera crews to comprehensively document evidence of the atrocity for use in the war crimes
tribunalTribunal in the general sense is any person or institution with the authority to judge, adjudicate on, or determine claims or disputes - whether or not it is called a tribunal in its title....
s. He made the decision to reclassify German
prisoners of warA prisoner of war or enemy prisoner of war is a combatant who is held in continuing custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict...
(POWs) in U.S. custody as
Disarmed Enemy ForcesDisarmed Enemy Forces , and—less commonly—Surrendered Enemy Forces, was a U.S. designation, both for soldiers who surrendered to an adversary after hostilities ended, and for those previously surrendered POWs who were held in camps in occupied German territory at that time. It is mainly referenced...
(DEFs), thus depriving them of the protection of the
Geneva ConventionThe Geneva Convention was signed at Geneva, July 27, 1929. Its official name is the Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva July 27, 1929. It entered into force 19 June, 1931. It is this version of the Geneva Conventions which covered the treatment of prisoners of war...
. As DEFs, their food rations could be lowered and they could be compelled to serve as unfree labor (see
RheinwiesenlagerThe Rheinwiesenlager , official name Prisoner of War Temporary Enclosures were a group of about 19 transit camps for holding about one million German POWs after World War II from spring until late summer 1945...
). Eisenhower was an early supporter of the
Morgenthau PlanThe Morgenthau Plan was a plan for the occupation of Germany after World War II that advocated measures intended to remove Germany's ability to wage war...
to permanently remove Germany's industrial capacity to wage future wars. In November 1945 he approved the distribution of 1000 free copies of
MorgenthauHenry Morgenthau, Jr. was the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury during the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt. He was also the father of Robert M...
's book
Germany is Our Problem, which promoted and described the plan in detail, to American military officials in occupied Germany. Historian
Stephen AmbroseStephen Edward Ambrose, Ph.D. was an American historian and biographer of U.S. Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and Richard Nixon. He was a long time professor of history at the University of New Orleans.-Biography:...
draws the conclusion that, despite Eisenhower's later claims the act was not an endorsement of the Morgenthau plan, Eisenhower both approved of the plan and had previously given Morgenthau at least some of his ideas about how Germany should be treated. He also incorporated officials from Morgenthau's
TreasuryThe Department of the Treasury is an executive department and the treasury of the United States federal government. It was established by an Act of Congress in 1789 to manage government revenue...
into the army of occupation. These were commonly called "Morgenthau boys" for their zeal in interpreting the occupation directive JCS 1067, which had been heavily influenced by Morgenthau and his plan, as strictly as possible.
Columbia University and NATO
In 1948, Eisenhower became President of
Columbia UniversityColumbia University in the City of New York is a private university in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. Columbia's main campus lies in the Morningside Heights neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan, in New York City...
. In December 1950, he took leave from the university when he became the Supreme Commander of the
North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationThe North Atlantic Treaty Organization ); ), also called "the Atlantic Alliance", is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on April 4, 1949...
(NATO), and given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service on May 31, 1952, and resumed the university presidency, which he held until January 1953.
1948 also was the year that Eisenhower's memoir,
Crusade in EuropeCrusade in Europe is a book by General Dwight D. Eisenhower was published by Doubleday in 1948. Maps were provided by Rafael Palacios.Crusade in Europe is a personal account by one of the senior military figures of World War II...
, was published. It is widely regarded as one of the finest U.S. military memoirs.
Entry into politics
After his many wartime successes, Eisenhower was a great hero in the U.S. He was unusual for a military hero as he never saw the front line in his life. The nearest he came to being under enemy fire was in 1944 when a German fighter strafed the ground while he was inspecting troops in Normandy. Eisenhower dove for cover like everyone else and after the plane flew off, a British brigadier helped him up and seemed very relieved he was not hurt. When Eisenhower thanked him for his solicitude, the brigadier deflated him by explaining "my concern was that you should not be injured in my sector."
Not long after his return in 1952, a "
Draft EisenhowerThe Draft Eisenhower movement was the first successful political draft of the 20th century to take a private citizen to the Oval Office. It was a widespread American grassroots political movement that eventually persuaded Dwight D. Eisenhower to run for President...
" movement in the Republican party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the
1952 presidential electionThe United States presidential election of 1952 took place in an era when Cold War tension between the United States and the Soviet Union was escalating rapidly. In the United States Senate, Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin had become a national figure after chairing congressional...
to counter the candidacy of
non-interventionistNonintervention or non-interventionism is a foreign policy which holds that political rulers should avoid alliances with other nations and avoid all wars not related to direct territorial self-defense...
Senator
Robert TaftRobert Alphonso Taft , of the Taft political family of Cincinnati, was a Republican United States Senator and a prominent conservative statesman...
. (Eisenhower had been courted by both parties in 1948 and had declined to run then.) Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination but came to an agreement that Taft would stay out of foreign affairs while Eisenhower followed a conservative domestic policy. Eisenhower's campaign was noted for the simple but effective
sloganA slogan is a memorable motto or phrase used in a political, commercial, religious and other context as a repetitive expression of an idea or purpose. The word slogan is derived from slogorn which was an Anglicisation of the Scottish and Irish Gaelic sluagh-ghairm...
"I Like Ike" and was a crusade against the
TrumanHarry S. Truman was the 33rd President of the United States . As President Franklin D. Roosevelt's third vice-president and the 34th Vice President of the United States, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12, 1945, when President Roosevelt died less than three months after beginning his...
administration's policies regarding "
KoreaKorea is a civilization and formerly unified nation currently divided into two states. Located on the Korean Peninsula, it borders China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait....
,
CommunismCommunism is a socioeconomic structure and political ideology that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless society based on common ownership and control of the means of production and property in general. Karl Marx posited that communism would be the final stage in human...
and Corruption." Truman, formerly a friend of Eisenhower's, never forgave him for not denouncing Senator
Joseph McCarthyJoseph Raymond McCarthy was an American politician who served as a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957...
during the 1952 campaign. Truman said he had previously thought Eisenhower would be a great President, but "he has betrayed almost everything I thought he stood for."
Eisenhower promised during his campaign to go to Korea himself and end the war there. He also promised to maintain both a strong NATO commitment against Communism and a corruption-free frugal administration at home. He and his running mate
Richard NixonRichard Milhous Nixon was the 37th President of the United States and is the only president to resign the office. He was also the 36th Vice President of the United States ....
, whose daughter later married Eisenhower's grandson David, defeated Democrats
Adlai StevensonAdlai Ewing Stevenson II was an American politician, noted for his intellectual demeanor, eloquent oratory, and promotion of liberal causes in the Democratic Party. He served one term as governor of Illinois, and received the Democratic Party's nomination for president in 1952 and 1956; both times...
and
John SparkmanJohn Jackson Sparkman was an American politician from the state of Alabama. A conservative Southern Democrat, Sparkman served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate from 1937 until 1979. He was the Democratic Party's nominee for Vice President as Adlai Stevenson's running mate in...
in a landslide, marking the first Republican return to the
White HouseThe White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., it was built between 1792 and 1800 of white-painted Aquia sandstone in the late Georgian style and has been the residence of every...
in 20 years, with Eisenhower becoming the last President born in the 19th century. Eisenhower, at 62, was the oldest man to be elected President since
James BuchananJames Buchanan, Jr. was the 15th President of the United States from 1857–1861 and the last to be born in the 18th century...
in 1856. Eisenhower was the only general to serve as President in the 20th century, and the most recent President to have never held elected office prior to the Presidency. The other Presidents not to have sought prior elected office were
Zachary TaylorZachary Taylor was an American military leader and the 12th President of the United States.Known as "Old Rough and Ready," Taylor had a 40-year military career in the U.S. Army, serving in the War of 1812, Black Hawk War, and Second Seminole War before achieving fame leading U.S...
,
Ulysses S. GrantUlysses S. Grant was general-in-chief of the Union Army from 1864 to 1869 during the American Civil War and the 18th President of the United States from 1869 to 1877....
,
William Howard TaftWilliam Howard Taft was the 27th President of the United States and later the 10th Chief Justice of the United States....
, and
Herbert HooverHerbert Clark Hoover was the 31st President of the United States . Hoover was a professional mining engineer and author. As the United States Secretary of Commerce in the 1920s under Presidents Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge, he promoted government intervention under the rubric "economic...
.
Presidency 1953–1961
Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower preached a doctrine of dynamic conservatism. He continued all the major
New DealThe New Deal was the name that United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave to his complex package of economic programs 1933-36 with the goals of what historians call the 3 Rs, of giving Relief to the unemployed and badly hurt farmers, Reform of business and financial practices, and promoting...
programs still in operation, especially
Social SecuritySocial Security in the United States currently refers to the federal Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance program....
. He expanded its programs and rolled them into a new cabinet-level agency, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers. His cabinet, consisting of several corporate executives and one labor leader, was dubbed by one journalist, "Eight millionaires and a plumber."
Eisenhower won his second term in 1956 with 457 of 531 votes in the Electoral College, and 57.6% of the popular vote.
Interstate Highway System
One of Eisenhower's enduring achievements was championing and signing the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956. He justified the project through the
Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, popularly known as the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act , was enacted on June 29, 1956, when Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law...
as essential to American security during the Cold War. It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible future war, and the highways were designed to evacuate them and allow the military to move in.
Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by his involvement in the U.S. Army's 1919
Transcontinental Motor ConvoyThe Transcontinental Motor Convoys were two US Army convoys that crossed the United States from Washington, DC to the west coast. The first convoy in 1919 traveled from Washington, DC to San Francisco on the then still incomplete Lincoln Highway, the first road across America. It was the first...
. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of U.S. Army vehicles coast to coast. His subsequent experience with German
autobahnAutobahn is the German word for a major high-speed road restricted to motor vehicles capable of driving at least 60 km/h and having full control of access, similar to a motorway or freeway in English-speaking countries.In most countries, it usually refers to the German autobahn specifically...
s during World War II convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System. Noticing the improved ability to move logistics throughout the country, he thought an Interstate Highway System in the U.S. would not only be beneficial for military operations, but be the building block for continued economic growth.
Eisenhower Doctrine
After the
Suez CrisisThe Suez Crisis, also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression, was a military attack on Egypt by Britain, France, and Israel beginning on 29 October 1956....
, the United States became the protector of most Western interests in the
Middle EastThe Middle East is a region that spans southwestern Asia, southeastern Europe, and northeastern Africa. It has no clear boundaries, often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. As a result, Eisenhower proclaimed the "
Eisenhower DoctrineThe Eisenhower Doctrine was announced by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in a message to the United States Congress on January 5, 1957. Under the Eisenhower Doctrine, a country could request American economic assistance and/or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed...
" in January 1957. In relation to the Middle East, the U.S. would be "prepared to use armed force...[to counter] aggression from any country controlled by international communism." On July 15, 1958, he sent just under 15,000 soldiers to Lebanon (a combined force of Army and Marine Corps) as part of
Operation Blue Bat, a non-combat peace keeping mission to stabilize the pro-Western government. They left in October of the same year.
In addition, Eisenhower explored the option of supporting the French colonial forces in
VietnamVietnam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam , is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea to the east...
who were fighting an independence insurrection there. However, Chief of Staff
Matthew RidgwayMatthew Bunker Ridgway was a United States Army General. He held several major commands and was most famous for resurrecting the United Nations war effort during the Korean War. Several historians have credited Ridgway for turning around the war in favor of the UN side...
dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary.
As the
Cold WarThe Cold War was the continuing state of political conflict, military tension, and economic competition existing after World War II , primarily between the USSR and its satellite states, and the powers of the Western world, including the United States...
deepened, Eisenhower's
Secretary of StateThe United States Secretary of State is the head of the United States Department of State, concerned with foreign affairs. The Secretary is a member of the President's Cabinet and the highest-ranking cabinet secretary both in line of succession and order of precedence. The current Secretary of...
,
John Foster DullesJohn Foster Dulles served as U.S. Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive stance against communism around the world...
, sought to isolate the
Soviet UnionThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the , tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common short name is Soviet Union, from , Sovetskiy Soyuz...
by building regional alliances of nations against it. His efforts were sometimes called "
pacto-maniaPactomania is a term used to describe a period of treaty making by the United States during the Cold War. During the Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the United States, mainly through the efforts of Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, formed alliances with 42 separate nations along with...
".
Civil rights and national security
In October 1952, the Eisenhower administration declared racial discrimination a
national securityNational security is the requirement to maintain the survival of the nation-state through the use of economic, military and political power and the exercise of diplomacy.Measures taken to ensure national security include:...
issue. In
How Free is Free? historian Leon Litwack writes:
The restructuring of race relations took on a new urgency, an importance reserved for matters of national security. White supremacyWhite supremacy is the belief that white people are superior to people of other racial backgrounds. The term is sometimes used specifically to describe a political ideology that advocates the social and political dominance of whites....
, at least its most blatant and embarrassing manifestations, had become too costly to defend to sustain. In October 1952, when the Justice Department filed an amicus brief in the case of Brown v. Board of EducationBrown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 , was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court, which overturned earlier rulings going back to Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896, by declaring that state laws that established separate public schools for black and white students denied...
, it explained the interest of the president and the executive branch in the eventual decision. Nothing less was at stake than the very credibility of the United States in the international anti-Communist struggle. "It is in the context of the present world struggle between freedom and tyranny that the problem of racial discrimination must be viewed... Racial discrimination furnishes grist for the Communist propaganda mills, and it raises doubts even among friendly nations as to the intensity of our devotion to the democratic faith." The brief also cited a response from Secretary of State Dean AchesonDean Gooderham Acheson was an American statesman and lawyer; as United States Secretary of State in the administration of President Harry S. Truman during 1949–1953, he played a central role in defining American foreign policy during the Cold War...
affirming the importance of this case in the conduct of foreign relations. "The undeniable existence of racial discrimination, he declared, "gives unfriendly governments the most effective kind of ammunition for their propaganda warfare,... and jeopardizes the effective maintenance of our moral leadership of the free and democratic nations of the world."
The day after the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its decision in
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka in which segregated ("
separate but equalPlessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 , is a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision in the jurisprudence of the United States, upholding the constitutionality of racial segregation even in public accommodations , under the doctrine of "separate but equal".The decision was handed down by a vote of 7 to 1...
") schools were ruled to be unconstitutional, Eisenhower told District of Columbia officials to make Washington a model for the rest of the country in integrating black and white public school children. He proposed to Congress the Civil Rights Acts of
1957The Civil Rights Act of 1957, primarily a voting rights bill, was the first civil rights legislation enacted by Congress in the United States since Reconstruction. After it was proposed to Congress by then-President Dwight Eisenhower, Senator James Strom Thurmond sustained the longest one-person...
and
1960The Civil Rights Act of 1960 was a United States federal law that established federal inspection of local voter registration polls and introduced penalties for anyone who obstructed someone's attempt to register to vote or actually vote....
and signed those acts into law. Although both Acts were weaker than subsequent civil rights legislation, they constituted the first significant civil rights acts since the 1870s.
The "
Little Rock NineThe Little Rock Nine were a group of African-American students who were enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. The ensuing Little Rock Crisis, in which the students were initially prevented from entering the racially segregated school by Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus, and then...
" incident of 1957 involved the refusal by Arkansas to honor a Federal court order to integrate the schools. Under , Eisenhower placed the
Arkansas National GuardThe Arkansas Army National Guard is a component of the United States Army and the United States National Guard. Nationwide, the Army National Guard comprises approximately one half of the US Army's available combat forces and approximately one third of its support organization...
under Federal control and sent Army troops to escort nine black students into Little Rock Central High School, an all-white public school. The integration did not occur without violence. Eisenhower and Arkansas governor
Orval FaubusOrval Eugene Faubus was a six-term Democratic Governor of Arkansas, serving from 1955 to 1967. He is best known for his 1957 stand against the desegregation of Little Rock public schools during the Little Rock Crisis, in which he defied a unanimous decision of the United States Supreme Court by...
engaged in tense arguments.
Supreme Court
Eisenhower appointed the following
Justices to the
Supreme Court of the United StatesThe Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States, and leads the federal judiciary. It consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight Associate Justices, who are nominated by the President and confirmed with the "advice and consent" of the Senate...
:
- Earl Warren
Earl Warren was the 14th Chief Justice of the United States and is to date the only person elected Governor of California three times. Prior to holding these positions, Warren served as a district attorney for Alameda County, California and Attorney General of California.His tenure as California...
, 1953 (Chief Justice)
- John Marshall Harlan II
John Marshall Harlan was an American jurist who served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court from 1955 to 1971. His namesake was his grandfather John Marshall Harlan, another associate justice who served from 1877 to 1911.Harlan was a student at Upper Canada College and Appleby College and...
, 1954
- William J. Brennan, 1956
- Charles Evans Whittaker
Charles Evans Whittaker was an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1957 to 1962.-Early years:...
, 1957
- Potter Stewart
Potter Stewart was an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. On the Court, he made major contributions to criminal justice reform, civil rights, access to the courts, and Fourth Amendment jurisprudence, among other areas.-Education:Stewart was born in Jackson, Michigan,...
, 1958
Other courts
In addition to his five Supreme Court appointments, Eisenhower appointed 45 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 129 judges to the United States district courts.
States admitted to the Union
- Alaska
Alaska is the largest state of the United States of America by area; it is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait...
– January 3, 1959 49th state
- Hawaii
Hawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states, and is the only state made up entirely of islands. It is located on an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of Australia. The state was admitted to the Union on August...
– August 21, 1959 50th state
Health issues
Eisenhower was probably the first president to allow his personal health problems to become public while in office. In September 1955, while vacationing in Colorado, he had a serious myocardial infarct (heart attack) that required several weeks' hospitalization. He was treated by Dr.
Paul Dudley WhitePaul Dudley White , American physician and cardiologist, was born in Roxbury, Massachusetts, the son of Herbert Warren White and Elizabeth Abigail Dudley. White's interest in medicine was sparked early in life, when he accompanied his father, a family practitioner, on rounds and house calls in a...
, a cardiologist with a national reputation, who regularly informed the press of the president's progress. As a consequence of his heart attack, Eisenhower developed a left ventricular
aneurysmAn aneurysm or aneurism , is a localized, blood-filled dilation of a blood vessel caused by disease or weakening of the vessel wall....
, which was in turn the source of a thromboembolic cerebrovascular accident (stroke) in November 1957. The president also suffered from regional enteritis (
Crohn's diseaseCrohn's disease is an inflammatory disease of the intestines that may affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from anus to mouth, causing a wide variety of symptoms...
), a chronic inflammatory condition of the intestine, which necessitated surgery for a bowel obstruction in June 1956. Fortunately, the last 3 years of Eisenhower's term in office were ones of relatively good health. Eventually, however, after leaving the White House, he suffered several additional myocardial infarcts and was ultimately impaired physically because of them.
End of presidency
In 1961, Eisenhower became the first U.S. president to be "constitutionally forced" from office, having served the maximum two terms allowed by the
22nd Amendment to the U.S. ConstitutionThe Twenty-second Amendment of the United States Constitution sets a term limit for the President of the United States. The Congress passed the amendment on March 21, 1947. It was ratified by the requisite number of states on February 27, 1951...
. The amendment was ratified in 1951, during Harry S. Truman's term, but it stipulated that Truman would not be affected by the amendment.
Eisenhower was also the first outgoing President to come under the protection of the
Former Presidents ActThe Former Presidents Act is a 1958 federal law that provides several lifetime benefits to former Presidents of the United States.-History:...
; two then-living former Presidents,
Herbert HooverHerbert Clark Hoover was the 31st President of the United States . Hoover was a professional mining engineer and author. As the United States Secretary of Commerce in the 1920s under Presidents Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge, he promoted government intervention under the rubric "economic...
and
Harry S. TrumanHarry S. Truman was the 33rd President of the United States . As President Franklin D. Roosevelt's third vice-president and the 34th Vice President of the United States, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12, 1945, when President Roosevelt died less than three months after beginning his...
, left office before the Act was passed. Under the act, Eisenhower was entitled to receive a lifetime pension, state-provided staff and a
Secret ServiceThe United States Secret Service is a United States federal law enforcement agency that falls under the United States Department of Homeland Security. The sworn members are divided among the Special Agents and the Uniformed Division. Until March 1, 2003, the Service was part of the United States...
detail.
In the 1960 election to choose his successor, Eisenhower endorsed his own Vice-President, Republican Richard Nixon against Democrat
John F. KennedyJohn Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy , often referred to by his initials JFK, was the 35th President of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963....
. He thoroughly supported Nixon over Kennedy, telling friends: "I will do almost anything to avoid turning my chair and country over to Kennedy." However, he only campaigned for Nixon in the campaign's final days and even did Nixon some harm. When asked by reporters at the end of a televised press conference to list one of Nixon's policy ideas he had adopted, he joked, "If you give me a week, I might think of one." Kennedy's campaign used the quote in one of its campaign commercials. Nixon lost narrowly to Kennedy. Eisenhower, who was the oldest elected President in history at that time, thus handed power over to the youngest elected President.
On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the
Oval Office| |-| |-| |-| |-| |-| |-| |-| |-| |}The Oval Office is the official office of the President of the United States. Created in 1909 as part of an overall expansion of the West Wing of the White House during the administration of William Howard Taft, the office was inspired by the elliptical Blue Room...
. In his farewell speech to the nation, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the U.S. armed forces. He described the Cold War saying: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method..." and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals and continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the
military-industrial complexMilitary-industrial complex is a concept commonly used to refer to policy relationships between governments, national armed forces, and industrial support they obtain from the commercial sector in political approval for research, development, production, use, and support for military training,...
... Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together."
Because of legal issues related to holding a military rank while in a civilian office, Eisenhower resigned his permanent commission as
General of the ArmyGeneral of the Army is a five-star general officer and is the second highest possible rank in the United States Army. A special rank of General of the Armies, which ranks above General of the Army, does exist but has only been conferred twice in the history of the Army...
before entering the office of President of the United States. Upon completion of his Presidential term, his commission on the retired list was reactivated and Eisenhower again was commissioned a five-star general in the United States Army.
Post-presidency
Eisenhower retired to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at
GettysburgGettysburg is a borough in and the county seat of Adams County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 7,490 at the 2000 census.Although known primarily as an attraction because of its proximity to the Gettysburg Battlefield, site of the Battle of Gettysburg, the borough is also known for...
,
PennsylvaniaThe Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , often colloquially referred to as PA by natives and Northeasterners, is a state located in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States...
. In 1967, the Eisenhowers donated the farm to the
National Park ServiceThe National Park Service is the U.S. federal agency that manages all national parks, many national monuments, and other conservation and historical properties with various title designations...
and since 1980 it has been open to the public as the
Eisenhower National Historic SiteEisenhower National Historic Site was the home and farm of General and President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower and Mamie Doud Eisenhower. Located adjacent to the Gettysburg Battlefield in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the farm served as a weekend retreat for the President and a meeting...
. In retirement, he did not completely retreat from political life; he spoke at the
1964 Republican National ConventionThe 1964 National Convention of the Republican Party of the United States took place in the Cow Palace, San Francisco, California, on July 13 to July 16, 1964. Before 1964, there had only been one national Republican convention on the West Coast. Many believed that a convention at San Francisco...
and appeared with
Barry GoldwaterBarry Morris Goldwater was a five-term United States Senator from Arizona and the Republican Party's nominee for President in the 1964 election. He was also a Major General in the U.S. Air Force Reserve. He was known as "Mr...
in a Republican campaign commercial from Gettysburg.
Death and funeral
Eisenhower died of
congestive heart failureHeart failure is a condition in which a problem with the structure or function of the heart impairs its ability to supply sufficient blood flow to meet the body's needs...
on March 28, 1969, at Walter Reed Army Hospital in Washington D.C. The following day his body was moved to the
Washington National CathedralWashington National Cathedral, whose official name is the Cathedral Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, is a cathedral of the Episcopal Church....
's Bethlehem Chapel where he lay in repose for twenty-eight hours. On March 30, his body was brought by
caissonA limber is a two-wheeled cart designed to support the trail of an artillery piece, allowing it to be towed. A caisson is the assembly of the limber with the arillery piece or other wheeled object pulled by a team of ridden horses....
to the
United States CapitolThe United States Capitol is the meeting place of the United States Congress, the legislature of the Federal government of the United States. Located in Washington, D.C., it sits atop Capitol Hill at the eastern end of the National Mall. Though not in the geographic center of the District of...
where he lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda. On March 31, Eisenhower's body was returned to the
National CathedralWashington National Cathedral, whose official name is the Cathedral Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, is a cathedral of the Episcopal Church....
where he was given an Episcopal Church funeral service. That evening, Eisenhower's body was placed onto a train en route to
AbileneAbilene is a city in Dickinson County, Kansas, United States, 163 miles west of Kansas City. In 1900, 3,507 people lived here. The population was 6,543 at the 2000 census...
,
KansasKansas is a state located in the Midwestern United States. It is named after the Kansas River which flows through it, which in turn was named after the Kansa tribe, who inhabited the area. The tribe's name is often said to mean "people of the wind" or "people of the south wind," although this was...
. His body arrived on April 2, and was interred later that day in a small chapel on the grounds of the Eisenhower Presidential Library. Eisenhower is buried alongside his son Doud who died at age 3 in 1921, and his wife, Mamie, who died in 1979.
Nixon spoke of Eisenhower's death, "Some men are considered great because they lead great armies or they lead powerful nations. For eight years now, Dwight Eisenhower has neither commanded an army nor led a nation; and yet he remained through his final days the world's most admired and respected man, truly the first citizen of the world."
Legacy
After Eisenhower left office, his reputation declined and he was seen as having been a "do-nothing" President. This was partly because of the contrast between Eisenhower and his young activist successor,
John F. KennedyJohn Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy , often referred to by his initials JFK, was the 35th President of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963....
. Despite his unprecedented use of Army troops to enforce a federal desegregation order at Central High School in Little Rock, Eisenhower was criticized for his reluctance to support the
civil rightsCivil and political rights are a class of rights and freedoms that protect individuals from unwarranted government action and ensure one's ability to participate in the civil and political life of the state without discrimination or repression....
movement to the degree which other activists wanted. Eisenhower was also criticized for his handling of the 1960 U-2 incident and the international embarrassment, the Soviet Union's perceived leadership in the
Arms raceThe term arms race, in its original usage, describes a competition between two or more parties for real or apparent military supremacy. Each party competes to produce larger numbers of weapons, greater armies, or superior military technology in a technological escalation...
and the
Space raceThe Space Race was an informal competition between the United States and the Soviet Union, as each side tried to match or better the other's accomplishments in exploring outer space...
, and his failure to publicly oppose
McCarthyismMcCarthyism is the politically motivated practice of making accusations of disloyalty, subversion, or treason without proper regard for evidence...
. In particular, Eisenhower was criticized for failing to defend
George MarshallGeneral of the Army George Catlett Marshall was an American military leader, Chief of Staff of the Army, Secretary of State, and the third Secretary of Defense. Once noted as the "organizer of victory" by Winston Churchill for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II, Marshall served...
from attacks by
Joseph McCarthyJoseph Raymond McCarthy was an American politician who served as a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957...
, though he privately deplored McCarthy's tactics and claims. Such omissions were held against him during the liberal climate of the 1960s and 1970s. Since that time, however, Eisenhower's reputation has risen. In recent surveys of historians, Eisenhower often is ranked in the top 10 among all US Presidents.
Eisenhower was the first President to hire a White House Chief of Staff or "gatekeeper" – an idea that he borrowed from the United States Army, and that has been copied by every president after Lyndon Johnson. (
Gerald FordGerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. was the 38th President of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977, and the 40th Vice President of the United States serving from 1973 to 1974...
and
Jimmy CarterJames Earl "Jimmy" Carter, Jr. served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981 and was the recipient of the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize, the only U.S. President to have received the Prize after leaving office...
initially tried to operate without a Chief of Staff but both eventually gave up the effort and hired one.)
Eisenhower founded
People to People InternationalPeople to People International was established on September 11, 1956 by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. At the time, the first people to travel as a part of the program were professionals from varying fields. Today, this organization shows continuing support for the People to People Student...
in 1956, based on his belief that citizen interaction would promote cultural interaction and world peace. The program includes a student ambassador component which sends American youth on educational trips to other countries.
Tributes and memorials
Eisenhower's picture was on the
dollar coinThe Eisenhower Dollar is a $1 coin issued by the United States government from 1971–1978...
from 1971 to 1978. Nearly 700 million of the copper-nickel clad coins were minted for general circulation, and far smaller numbers of uncirculated and
proofProof coinage means special early samples of a coin issue, historically made for checking the dies and for archival purposes, but nowadays often struck in greater numbers specially for coin collectors . Many countries now issue them....
issues (in both copper-nickel and 40% silver varieties) were produced for collectors. He reappeared on a
commemorativeCommemorative coinage of the United States consists of coins that have been minted to commemorate a particular event, person or organization.Many consider the 1848 2 1/2 dollar gold piece counter stamped "CAL" to be the first U.S...
silver dollar issued in 1990, celebrating the 100th anniversary of his birth, which with a double image of him showed his two roles, as both a soldier and a statesman. The reverse of the commemorative depicted his home in Gettysburg. As part of the Presidential $1 Coin Program, Eisenhower will be featured on a gold-colored dollar coin in 2015.
He is remembered for his role in
World War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, the creation of the
Interstate Highway SystemThe Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways, commonly called the Interstate Highway System , is a network of limited-access highways in the United States that is named for President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who championed its formation...
and ending the
Korean WarThe Korean War is a war that started between North Korea and South Korea on 25 June 1950 and paused with an armistice signed 27 July, 1953...
.
USS Dwight D. EisenhowerUSS Dwight D. Eisenhower , nicknamed "Ike", is the second of 10 Nimitz-class supercarriers in the United States Navy, named after the thirty-fourth President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower. Originally, she was named Eisenhower, much like her sister, Nimitz. On 25 May 1970, the name...
, the second
Nimitz-class
supercarrierSupercarrier is an unofficial descriptive term for the largest type of aircraft carrier, usually displacing over 70,000 long tons. Few countries operate medium carriers of 40,000 tons . Light carriers closer to 20,000 are more typical...
, was named in his honor.
The Interstate Highway System is officially known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways in his honor. Several highways are also named for him, including the
Eisenhower ExpresswayInterstate 290 is a main Interstate freeway that runs westwards from the Chicago Loop. A portion of I-290 is officially called the Dwight D. Eisenhower Expressway. In short form, it is known as "the Ike" or the the Eisenhower...
(Interstate 290) near
ChicagoChicago is the largest city in the U.S. state of Illinois, and with more than 2.8 million people, the 3rd largest city in the United States...
and the
Eisenhower TunnelThe Eisenhower Tunnel is a vehicular tunnel located on Interstate 70 approximately west of Denver, Colorado. The tunnel was built under the Continental Divide, and at a maximum elevation of above sea level, it is one of the highest vehicular tunnels in the world...
on
Interstate 70Interstate 70 is an Interstate Highway in the United States that runs from Interstate 15 near Cove Fort, Utah, to a Park and Ride near Baltimore, Maryland. It was the first Interstate Highway Project started in the United States. I-70 approximately traces the path of U.S. Route 40 east of the...
west of
DenverThe City and County of Denver is the capital and the most populous city of the state of Colorado, in the United States. Denver is a consolidated city-county located in the South Platte River Valley on the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains...
.
The British A4 class steam locomotive No. 4496 (renumbered 60008)
Golden Shuttle was renamed
Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1946. It is preserved at the
National Railroad MuseumThe National Railroad Museum is a railroad museum located in Ashwaubenon, Wisconsin, in suburban Green Bay.The museum is one of the oldest institutions in the United States dedicated to preserving and interpreting the nation's railroad history. It was founded in 1956 by community volunteers in...
in
Green BayGreen Bay is a city in and the county seat of Brown County in the U.S. state of Wisconsin.The city is located at the head of its namesake Green Bay, a sub-basin of Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Fox River. It has an elevation of 581 feet above sea level and is located 112 miles north of...
,
WisconsinWisconsin is one of the fifty U.S. states. Located in the north-central United States, Wisconsin is considered part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the...
.
Eisenhower CollegeEisenhower College was a small college named after U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower, located on Cayuga Lake in Seneca Falls, New York. It was founded on September 21, 1965 as a liberal arts college...
was a small, liberal arts college chartered in
Seneca FallsSeneca Falls is a village in Seneca County, New York, United States. The population was 6,861 at the 2000 census. The village is in the Town of Seneca Falls, east of Geneva, New York.Finger Lakes Regional Airport is south of the village....
,
New YorkNew York is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous. The state is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
in 1965, with classes beginning in 1968. Financial problems forced the school to fall under the management of the
Rochester Institute of TechnologyThe Rochester Institute of Technology is a private university, located in metropolitan Rochester, New York, within the town of Henrietta, New York, United States, emphasizing undergraduate instruction and career preparation.-History:...
in 1979. Its last class graduated in 1983.
The
Eisenhower Medical CenterThe Eisenhower Medical Center is a not-for-profit hospital located in Rancho Mirage, California. It was named one of the top one hundred hospitals in the United States in 2005 and serves as the location of the world-famous Betty Ford Center....
in
Rancho MirageRancho Mirage is a city in Riverside County, California, United States. The population was 13,249 at the 2000 census, but the seasonal population can exceed 20,000. In between Cathedral City and Palm Desert, it is one of the eight cities of the Coachella Valley...
,
CaliforniaCalifornia is the most populous state in the United States, and the third largest by area. California is the second most populous sub-national entity in the Americas, behind only São Paulo, Brazil...
was named after the President in 1971.
The
Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical CenterThe Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center, a 300-bed hospital, is based at Fort Gordon, located near Augusta, Georgia and serves as the headquarters of the Army's Southeast Regional Medical Command, or SERMC...
, located at
Fort GordonFort Gordon is a United States Army Installation and the current home of the United States Army Signal Corps and Signal Center and was once the home of "The Provost Marshal General School" . The fort is located in Richmond, Jefferson, McDuffie, and Columbia counties, Georgia...
near
AugustaAugusta is a consolidated city in the U.S. state of Georgia. The City of Augusta and Richmond County governments merged operations in 1996; as of September 2008, the Augusta-Richmond county population was 192,851, not counting the unconsolidated cities of Hephzibah and Blythe.Augusta is the...
,
GeorgiaGeorgia is a state in the United States. One of the original Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, it had been the last of the Thirteen Colonies to be established, in 1733. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January...
, was named in his honor.
In February 1971,
Dwight D. Eisenhower School of
Freehold TownshipFreehold Township is a Township in Monmouth County, New Jersey, United States. As of the United States 2000 Census, the township population was 31,537. Freehold Township was first formed on October 31, 1693, and was incorporated as a township by an Act of the New Jersey Legislature on February 21,...
,
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. It is bordered on the north by New York, and to the east by the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, the Arthur Kill, Raritan Bay, Sandy Hook Bay, Westchester County, New York City, Long Island, and...
was officially opened.
In 1983,
The Eisenhower InstituteThe Eisenhower Institute is a center for leadership and public policy based in Washington, D.C. and in Gettysburg, PA. Founded in 1983, the EI serves as a presidential legacy organization honoring the legacy of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the 34th President of the United States...
was founded in Washington, D.C., as a policy institute to advance Eisenhower's intellectual and leadership legacies.
In 1989, U.S. Ambassador
Charles PriceCharles H. Price II is a prominent American businessman and former Ambassador of the United States.-Early life:Price was born to a prominent family in Kansas City, Missouri, who owned a local candy manufacturing firm, the Price Candy Company...
and UK Prime Minister
Margaret ThatcherMargaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She is the only woman to have held either post....
dedicated a bronze statue of Eisenhower in
Grosvenor SquareGrosvenor Square is a large garden square in the exclusive Mayfair district of London, England. It is the centrepiece of the Mayfair property of the Dukes of Westminster, and takes its name from their surname, "Grosvenor"....
, London. The statue is located in front of the current
US Embassy, LondonThe Embassy of the United States of America to the Court of St James's is at the American Embassy London Chancery Building, in Grosvenor Square, Westminster, London...
and across from the former command center for the Allied Expeditionary Force during World War II, offices Eisenhower occupied during the war.
In 1999, the
United States CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
created the
Dwight D. Eisenhower MemorialThe Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial is a proposed United States presidential memorial to be constructed for United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower....
Commission, which is in the planning stages of creating an enduring
national memorialNational Memorial is a designation in the United States for a protected area, that memorializes a historic person or event. National memorials are authorized by the United States Congress. The memorial is often not located on a site directly related to the subject and many, such as the USS Arizona...
in Washington, D.C., across the street from the
National Air and Space MuseumThe National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution is a museum in Washington, D.C., United States, and is the most popular of the Smithsonian museums. It maintains the largest collection of aircraft and spacecraft in the world...
on the
National MallThe National Mall is an open-area national park in downtown Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States. The National Mall is a unit of the National Park Service, and is administered by the National Mall and Memorial Parks unit...
.
On May 7, 2002, the
Old Executive Office BuildingThe Eisenhower Executive Office Building , formerly known as the Old Executive Office Building and as the State, War, and Navy Building, is an office building in Washington, D.C. adjacent to the White House...
was officially renamed the Eisenhower Executive Office Building. This building is part of the
White House ComplexThe White House Complex is the designation of the four principal structures, and the adjoining outdoor ceremonial areas, which serve as the seat of the executive branch of United States government...
, west of the
West WingThe West Wing is the building housing the official offices of the President of the United States. It is the part of the White House Complex in which the Oval Office, the Cabinet Room, the Situation Room, and the Roosevelt Room are located...
. It currently houses a number of executive offices, including ones for the Vice President and his or her spouse.
In 2009,
Frank GehryFrank Owen Gehry, CC is a Canadian Pritzker Prize-winning architect based in Los Angeles.His buildings, including his private residence, have become tourist attractions...
was commissioned to design a memorial to Eisenhower to stand near the
National MallThe National Mall is an open-area national park in downtown Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States. The National Mall is a unit of the National Park Service, and is administered by the National Mall and Memorial Parks unit...
.
A county park in
East MeadowEast Meadow is a hamlet in Nassau County , New York, United States. East Meadow is an unincorporated area of the Town of Hempstead. Its name is derived from being the meadow of Hempstead Plains east of the Meadow Brook...
,
New YorkNew York is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous. The state is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
(
Long IslandLong Island is an island located in southeastern New York, United States, just east of Manhattan. Stretching northeast into the Atlantic Ocean, Long Island contains four counties, two of which are boroughs of New York City, and two of which are mainly suburban...
) is named in his honor. In addition, Eisenhower State Park on
Lake TexomaLake Texoma is one of the largest reservoirs in the United States, the 12th largest Corps of Engineers lake, and the largest in USACE Tulsa District....
near his birthplace of Denison is named in his honor; his actual birthplace is currently operated by the State of Texas as
Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic SiteEisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site, located at 208 East Day Street in Denison, Texas, is the birthplace of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was born in the house on October 14, 1890, the first United States President to be born in Texas....
.
Many public
high schoolsEisenhower High School can refer to the following schools in the United States:* Eisenhower High School * Eisenhower High School * Eisenhower High School * Dwight D...
and
middle schoolsEisenhower Middle School may refer to:* Eisenhower Middle School * Eisenhower Middle School * Eisenhower Middle School * Eisenhower Middle School...
in the U.S. are named after Eisenhower.
There is a
Mount EisenhowerMount Eisenhower is a mountain in the Presidential Range in the White Mountains of New Hampshire that is approximately high and is named after President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Its summit offers a 360° view of New Hampshire's mountains. It is inaccessible by road.The Crawford Path, carrying the...
in the
Presidential RangeThe Presidential Range is a mountain range located in the White Mountains of the state of New Hampshire, almost entirely in Coos County. The most notable summits of the range are named for prominent Americans, either public figures of the 18th and 19th centuries or Presidents.-Notable summits:These...
of the
White MountainsThe White Mountains are a mountain range that covers about a quarter of the state of New Hampshire and a small portion of western Maine in the United States. Part of the Appalachian Mountains, they are considered the most rugged mountains in New England...
in
New HampshireNew Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire. It borders Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian province of...
.
A tree overhanging the 17th hole that always gave him trouble at
Augusta National Golf ClubAugusta National Golf Club, located in the American city of Augusta, Georgia, is one of the most storied and exclusive golf clubs in the world. Founded by Bobby Jones and Clifford Roberts and designed by Alister MacKenzie on the site of a former indigo plantation, the club opened for play in...
, where he was a member, is named the Eisenhower Tree in his honor.
The Eisenhower Golf Club at the
United States Air Force AcademyThe United States Air Force Academy , is an accredited college for the undergraduate education of commissioned officers for the United States Air Force. Its campus is located immediately north of Colorado Springs in El Paso County, Colorado, United States...
, a 36-hole facility featuring the Blue and Silver courses and which is ranked #1 among
DoDThe United States Department of Defense is the federal department charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government relating directly to national security and the military...
courses, is named in Eisenhower's honor.
United States awards
In Order of Precedence
Army Distinguished Service Medal with four oak leaf clusters
Navy Distinguished Service MedalThe Navy Distinguished Service Medal is a military award of the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps which was first created in 1919. The decoration the Navy and Marine Corps equivalent to the Army Distinguished Service Medal and the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal...
Legion of MeritThe Legion of Merit is a military decoration of the United States armed forces that is awarded for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements. The decoration is issued both to United States military personnel and to military and political figures...
- Mexican Border Service Medal
The Mexican Border Service Medal was a decoration of the United States military which was established by an act of the United States Congress on July 9, 1918...
World War I Victory Medal
American Defense Service MedalThe American Defense Service Medal is a decoration of the United States military, recognizing service before America’s entry into the Second World War but during the initial years of the European conflict.-Criteria:...
American Campaign MedalThe American Campaign Medal was a military decoration of the United States armed forces which was first created on November 6, 1942 by issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt...
- European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal
The European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal is a military decoration of the United States armed forces which was first created on November 6, 1942 by issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt...
with one silver and four bronze service stars
World War II Victory MedalThe World War II Victory Medal is a decoration of the United States military which was created by an act of Congress in July 1945. The decoration commemorates military service during World War II and is awarded to any member of the United States military, including members of the armed forces of...
- Army of Occupation Medal
The Army of Occupation Medal is a military decoration of the United States military which was established by the United States War Department in 1946. The medal was created in the aftermath of the Second World War to recognize those who had performed occupation service in either Germany or Japan...
with "Germany" clasp
- National Defense Service Medal
The National Defense Service Medal is a military service medal of the United States military originally commissioned by President Dwight D. Eisenhower...
(2 awards)
He was offered the
Medal of HonorThe Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed on a member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes themselves "conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while...
, but turned it down. He was also an honorary member of the
Boy Scouts of AmericaThe Boy Scouts of America is one of the largest youth organizations in the United States, with over four million youth members in its age-related divisions...
's Tom Kita Chara Lodge #96.
International awards
List of citations bestowed by other countries.
- Argentine Order of the Liberator San Martin, Great Cross
- Belgian Order of Léopold
- Belgian Croix de Guerre/Belgisch Oorlogskruis
The croix de guerre is a military decoration of both France and Belgium, where it is also known as the Oorlogskruis . It was first created in 1915 in both countries and consists of a square-cross medal on two crossed swords, hanging from a ribbon with various degree pins...
- Brazil Campaign Medal
- Brazil War Medal
- Brazilian Order of Military Merit, Grand Cross
- Brazilian Order of Aeronautical Merit, Grand Cross
- Brazilian National Order of the Southern Cross
The National Order of the Southern Cross is Brazil's highest order of merit.It was originally known as the Imperial Order of the Southern Cross...
- British Order of the Bath
The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for creating a knight, which involved bathing as one of its elements. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath...
, Knight Grand Cross
- British Africa Star
The Africa Star was a campaign medal of the British Commonwealth, awarded for service in World War II.The Star was awarded for a minimum one day service in an operational area of North Africa between 10 June1940 and 12 May1943...
with "8" and "1" numerical devices.
- Chilean Chief Commander of the Order of Merit
- Chinese Order of Yun Hui, Grand Cordon
- Chinese Order of Yun Fei, Grand Cordon
- Commonwealth realm
A Commonwealth realm is a sovereign state within the Commonwealth of Nations that has Elizabeth II as its monarch. The sixteen current realms have a combined land area of 18.8 million km² , and a population of 132 million; all but about two million live in the six most populous states, the United...
s Order of Merit
- Czechoslovakian Order of the White Lion
The Order of the White Lion is the highest order of the Czech Republic, which continues a Czechoslovak order of the same name created in 1922 as an award for foreigners...
- Czechoslovakian Golden Star of Victory
- Danish Order of the Elephant
The Order of the Elephant is the highest order of Denmark. A Danish religious confraternity called the Fellowship of the Mother of God with a badge of the Virgin Mary holding her Son within a crescent moon and surrounded with the rays of the sun, which hung from a collar of links in the form of...
- Ecuadorian Star of Abdon Calderon
- Egyptian Order of Ismal, Grand Cordon
- Ethiopian Order of Solomon
The Order of Solomon was an order of knighthood of the Ethiopian Empire.The Solomonic dynasty, the ancient Imperial House of Ethiopia, claims descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, said to have given birth to King Menelik I after her visit to Solomon in Jerusalem.As the Empire's...
- French Croix de Guerre
The croix de guerre is a military decoration of both France and Belgium, where it is also known as the Oorlogskruis . It was first created in 1915 in both countries and consists of a square-cross medal on two crossed swords, hanging from a ribbon with various degree pins...
- French Legion of Honor
The Légion d'honneur or Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur is a French order established by Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul of the First Republic, on 19 May 1802...
.
- French Order of Liberation
The Ordre de la Libération is a French Order awarded to heroes of the Liberation of France during World War II. It is an exceptional honor, the second highest after the Légion d’Honneur and only a small number of people and military units have received it, exclusively for deeds accomplished...
- French Military Medal
The Médaille militaire is a decoration of the French Republic which was first instituted in 1852.The creator of the médaille was the emperor Napoléon III, who may have taken his inspiration in a medal issued by his father, Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland...
- Greek
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , is a country in southeastern Europe, situated on the southern end of the Balkan Peninsula....
Order of George IThe Royal Order of George I was formerly an order of Greece named after King George I of Greece. It was replaced in 1975 by the Order of Honour...
with swordA sword is a long, edged piece of metal, used in many civilizations throughout the world, primarily as a cutting or thrusting weapon and occasionally for clubbing...
s
- Guatemalan Cross of Military Merit, First Class
- Haitian Order of Honor and Merit, Grand Cross
- Italy Military Order of Italy
The Military Order of Italy is the highest military order of the Italian Republic and the former Kingdom of Italy. It was founded as the Military Order of Savoy, a national order of chivalry, by the King of Sardinia, Vittorio Emanuele I, Duke of Savoy in 1815...
, Knight Grand Cross
- Italy Order of Malta
- Luxembourg Medal of Merit
- Luxembourg War Cross
The Luxembourg War Cross is a military decoration of Luxembourg which was first created on 17 April 1945 by the Grand Duchess Charlotte of Luxembourg. The War Cross recognizes military service and feats of bravery performed between the years of 1940 and 1945...
- Mexican Order of the Aztec Eagle
The Order of the Aztec Eagle is a Mexican order and is the highest decoration awarded to foreigners in the country.It was created by decree on December 29, 1933 by President Abelardo L. Rodríguez as a reward to services given to Mexico or humankind by foreigners...
, First Class
- Mexican Medal of Civic Merit
- Mexican Order of Military Merit
- Moroccan Order of Ouissam Alaouite
- Netherlands: Order of the Netherlands Lion, Knight Grand Cross
- Norwegian Order of St. Olav
The Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav is a Norwegian order of chivalry that was instituted by King Oscar I of Norway and Sweden on August 21, 1847, as a distinctly Norwegian order. It is named after King Olav II, known for posterity as St. Olav. Nobility was abolished in Norway in 1821...
- Pakistani Nishan-e-Pakistan, or Order of Pakistan, First Class
- Panama Order of Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Grand Cross
- Panama Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero, Grand Master (collar grade)
- Philippines Distinguished Service Star
- Philippines Shield of Honor Medal, Chief Commander
- Philippines Order of Sikatuna
The Order of Sikatuna is the national order of diplomatic merit of the Republic of the Philippines. It is conferred upon individuals who have rendered exceptional and meritorious services to the Republic of the Philippines, upon diplomats, officials and nationals of foreign states who have rendered...
, Raja (First Class)
- Polish Cross of Grunwald
Cross of Grunwald or Order of the Cross of Grunwald was a military decoration created in November 1943 by the High Command of Gwardia Ludowa, a small World War II Polish resistance movement in Poland, organised by the communist Polish Workers Party...
, First Class
- Polish Order of Polonia Restituta
- Polish Virtuti Militari
The Order Virtuti Militari is Poland's highest military decoration for courage in the face of the enemy. It was created in 1792 by Poland's King Stanisław August Poniatowski and is considered as one of the oldest military decorations in the world still in use.It is awarded in five classes either...
- Soviet Order of Suvorov
The Order of Suvorov is a Soviet award, named after Aleksandr Suvorov , that was established on July 29, 1942 by a Decision of the Presidium of Supreme Soviet of the USSR. This decoration was created to award senior army personnel for exceptional leadership in combat operations...
- Soviet Order of Victory
The Order of Victory was the highest military decoration in the Soviet Union, and one of the rarest orders in the world. The order was awarded only to Generals and Marshals for successfully conducting combat operations involving one or more army groups and resulting in a "successful operation...
- Tunisian Order of Nichan Iftikhar, Gand Cordon
Other honors
- In 1966, Eisenhower was the second person to be awarded Civitan International's World Citizenship Award.
- Eisenhower's name was given to a variety of streets, avenues, etc., in cities around the world, including Paris
Paris is the capital of France and the country's most populous city. It is situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
, FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
.
- In December 1999, Eisenhower was listed on Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century
Gallup's List of Widely Admired People, a poll of United States citizens to volunteer the names of the individuals whom they most admire, is a list compiled annually by The Gallup Organization. This is the only question that Gallup has asked every year since its founding in the 1930s...
.
- In 2009, Eisenhower was named to the World Golf Hall of Fame
The World Golf Hall of Fame is located in St. Augustine, Florida, in the United States, and it is unusual among sports halls of fame in that a single site serves both men and women. It is supported by a consortium of 26 golf organizations from all over the world.The Hall of Fame Museum Building is...
in the Lifetime Achievement category for his contributions to the sport.
See also
- Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower
- Mamie Eisenhower
Mamie Geneva Doud-Eisenhower was the wife of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and First Lady of the United States from 1953 to 1961.-Early life:...
, wife of Dwight D. Eisenhower
- John Eisenhower
John Sheldon Doud Eisenhower is the son of President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his wife Mamie. He is a retired United States Army officer and the author of several books of military history. He served as the U.S...
, author, U.S. Ambassador to Belgium
- David Eisenhower
Dwight David Eisenhower II is an American author, public policy fellow, and namesake of the U.S. Presidential retreat, Camp David. He is the grandson of the 34th President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower, and the son-in-law of the 37th President of the United States Richard M...
, author, public policy fellow
- Julie Nixon Eisenhower
Julie Nixon Eisenhower is the second daughter of Richard and Patricia Ryan Nixon and younger sister of Patricia Nixon Cox. In 1968, she married David Eisenhower. While her father served as President, she wrote several books and worked as Assistant Managing Editor of the Saturday Evening Post...
, author and editor
- Atoms for Peace
"Atoms for Peace" was the title of a speech delivered by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower to the UN General Assembly in New York City on December 8, 1953....
, a speech to the U.N. General Assembly in December 1953
- Eisenhower National Historic Site
Eisenhower National Historic Site was the home and farm of General and President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower and Mamie Doud Eisenhower. Located adjacent to the Gettysburg Battlefield in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the farm served as a weekend retreat for the President and a meeting...
- Eisenhower Presidential Center
The Eisenhower Presidential Center, officially known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum or Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, includes the Eisenhower presidential library, President Dwight David Eisenhower's boyhood home, Museum, and gravesite...
- Historical rankings of United States Presidents
In political science, historical rankings of United States Presidents are surveys conducted in order to construct rankings of the success of individuals who have served as President of the United States. Ranking systems are usually based on surveys of academic historians and political scientists or...
- History of the United States (1945–1964)
The history of the United States from 1945 through 1964 covers the early Cold War and the Civil Rights Movement.The period of United States history is seen as a period of active foreign policy designed to rescue Europe from the devastation of World War II and from Communism...
- Kay Summersby
Kay Summersby was a member of the British Mechanised Transport Corps during World War II, who served as chauffeur to Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force Dwight D. Eisenhower, later as his secretary and, it is alleged, his mistress.-Biography:Summersby was born Kathleen Helen...
- Military-industrial complex
Military-industrial complex is a concept commonly used to refer to policy relationships between governments, national armed forces, and industrial support they obtain from the commercial sector in political approval for research, development, production, use, and support for military training,...
, a term made popular by Eisenhower
- Mount Eisenhower
Mount Eisenhower is a mountain in the Presidential Range in the White Mountains of New Hampshire that is approximately high and is named after President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Its summit offers a 360° view of New Hampshire's mountains. It is inaccessible by road.The Crawford Path, carrying the...
- People to People Student Ambassador Program
The People to People Student Ambassador Program is an organization based in Spokane, Washington, that offers educational international travel services to elementary, middle, and high school students...
- German Americans
- Thomas E. Stephens
Thomas Edgar Stephens was a portrait painter and friend of Dwight D. Eisenhower born in Cardiff, Wales in 1886. His father Thomas Stephens was born in Aberthaw, South Wales...
Portrait painter (Gallery of Presidents, Smithsonian) and friend of Eisenhower
- Ike: Countdown to D-Day
Ike: Countdown to D-Day is a 2004 American television film originally aired on the American television channel A&E and was directed by Robert Harmon and written by Lionel Chetwynd.Tom Selleck portrays General Dwight D. Eisenhower - US Army...
A 2004 American television film about Eisenhower's difficult decisions he had to make as Supreme Commander that led to the successful D-Day invasion of World War II.
Military career
- Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect, 1890–1952 (1983);'
- Bacque, James. Other Losses (2d. rev. ed., 1999)
- Eisenhower, David. Eisenhower at War 1943–1945 (1986), detailed study by his grandson
- Irish, Kerry E. "Apt Pupil: Dwight Eisenhower and the 1930 Industrial Mobilization Plan", The Journal of Military History 70.1 (2006) 31–61 online in Project Muse.
- Pogue, Forrest C. The Supreme Command (1996) official Army history of SHAEF
- Weigley, Russell. Eisenhower's Lieutenants. Indiana University Press, 1981. Ike's dealings with his key generals in WW2
Civilian career
- Albertson, Dean, ed. Eisenhower as President (1963).
- Alexander, Charles C. Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era, 1952–1961 (1975).
- Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect, 1890–1952 (1983); Eisenhower. The President (1984); one volume edition titled Eisenhower: Soldier and President (2003). Standard biography.
- Bowie, Robert R. and Richard H. Immerman; Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy, Oxford University Press, 1998.
- Damms, Richard V. The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953–1961 (2002).
- David Paul T. (ed.), Presidential Nominating Politics in 1952. 5 vols., Johns Hopkins Press, 1954.
- Divine, Robert A. Eisenhower and the Cold War (1981).
- Greenstein, Fred I. The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (1991).
- Harris, Douglas B. "Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997.
- Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (1962).
- Krieg, Joann P. ed. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman (1987). 24 essays by scholars.
- McAuliffe, Mary S. "Eisenhower, the President", Journal of American History 68 (1981), pp. 625–632.
- Medhurst, Martin J. Dwight D. Eisenhower: Strategic Communicator Greenwood Press, 1993.
- Pach, Chester J. and Elmo Richardson. Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower (1991). Standard scholarly survey.
Primary sources
- Boyle, Peter G., ed. The Churchill-Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953–1955 University of North Carolina Press, 1990.
- Eisenhower, Dwight D. Crusade in Europe (1948), his war memoirs.
- Eisenhower, Dwight D. The White House Years: Waging Peace 1956–1961, Doubleday and Co., 1965.
- Eisenhower Papers 21 volume scholarly edition; complete for 1940–1961.
- Summersby, Kay. Eisenhower was my boss (1948) New York: Prentice Hall; (1949) Dell paperback.
External links
- The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum
- Extensive essay on Dwight D. Eisenhower (with shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs)
- 1952 Ike for President TV Ad
- Full audio of Eisenhower speeches via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)
- Eisenhower's Secret White House Recordings via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)
- Audio clips of Eisenhower's speeches
- Dwight David Eisenhower biography
- Eisenhower Chronology World History Database
- Eisenhower Presidential Library & Museum, including Home and Tomb
- Essay: Why the Eisenhower administration embraced nuclear weapons (PDF)
- Farewell Address (Wikisource)
- Guardians of Freedom – 50th Anniversary of Operation Arkansas, by ARMY.MIL
- First Inaugural Address
- Original Document: D-Day Statement from Dwight D. Eisenhower
- Second Inaugural Address
- Spartacus Educational Biography
- The Arms of Dwight David Eisenhower
- The Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission
- The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921–1969, CHAPTER XXIX, Former President Dwight D. Eisenhower, State Funeral, March 28 – April 2, 1969 by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark
- The Presidential Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower (searchable online)
- White House biography
- Thaw in the Cold War: Eisenhower and Khrushchev at Gettysburg, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
- TIME Magazine Cover: Dwight D. Eisenhower, April 4, 1969
- Eisenhower's report on operation Torch
- 'The American Presidency: Transformation and Change – Dwight Eisenhower', lecture overview of Eisenhower's presidency by Vernon Bogdanor
Vernon Bogdanor, CBE, FBA is professor of government at Oxford University, England, and a fellow of Brasenose College. He is one of Britain's foremost constitutional experts and has written extensively on political and constitutional issues...
, Gresham CollegeGresham College is an unusual institution of higher learning off Holborn in central London. It enrolls no students and grants no degrees. The Collège de France offers perhaps a Parisian equivalent....
, March 18, 2008 (available in text, audio and video formats).
- The Eisenhower Center for American Studies
- Eisenhower Center Studies on War and Peace