Proton-proton chain reaction
The proton-proton chain reaction is one of two
fusion reactions by which
stars convert
hydrogen to
helium, the other being the
CNO cycle. The proton-proton chain dominates in stars the size of the
Sun or less.
To overcome the electromagnetic repulsion between two hydrogen nuclei requires a large amount of energy, and this reaction takes an average of 109 years to complete at the temperature of the Sun's core. Because of the slowness of this reaction the Sun is still shining; if it were faster, the Sun would have exhausted its hydrogen long ago.
Encyclopedia
The
proton-proton chain reaction is one of two
fusion reactions by which
stars convert
hydrogen to
helium, the other being the
CNO cycle. The proton-proton chain dominates in stars the size of the
Sun or less.
To overcome the electromagnetic repulsion between two hydrogen nuclei requires a large amount of energy, and this reaction takes an average of 10
9 years to complete at the temperature of the Sun's core. Because of the slowness of this reaction the Sun is still shining; if it were faster, the Sun would have exhausted its hydrogen long ago.
In general, proton-proton fusion can occur only if the temperature of the protons is high enough that they can overcome the mutual
Coulomb force repulsion. The theory that proton-proton reactions were the basic principle by which the Sun and other stars burn was advocated by
Arthur Eddington in the
1920s. At the time, the temperature of the Sun was considered too low to overcome the Coulomb-force barrier. After the development of
quantum mechanics, it was discovered that the tunneling of the wave functions of the protons through the repulsive barrier allowed for fusion at a lower temperature than the classical prediction.
The pp chain reaction
The first step involves the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei
1H into
deuterium 2H, releasing a
positron as one proton changes into a
neutron, and a
neutrino.
- 1H + 1H → 2H + e+ + νe
with the neutrinos released in this step carrying energies up to 0.42 MeV.
This first step is extremely slow, because it depends on the
weak interaction to convert one proton into a neutron. In fact this is the limiting step, with a proton waiting an average of 10
9 years before fusing into deuterium.
The positron immediately annihilates with one of the hydrogen's
electrons, and their mass energy is carried off by two
gamma ray photons.
- e+ + e− → 2γ + 1.02 MeV
After this, the deuterium produced in the first stage can fuse with another hydrogen to produce a light isotope of
helium,
3He:
- 2H + 1H → 3He + γ + 5.49 MeV
From here there are three posible paths to generate helium isotope
4He. In pp1 helium-4 comes from fusing two of the helium-3 nuclei produced; the pp2 and pp3 braches fuse
3He with a pre-existing
4He to make Beryllium-7.
In the Sun, branch pp1 takes place with a frequency of 86%, pp2 with 14% and pp3 with 0.11%. There is also an extremely rare pp4 branch.
The pp I branch
- 3He +3He → 4He + 1H + 1H + 12.86 MeV
The complete pp I chain reaction releases a net energy of 26.7 MeV.
The pp I branch is dominant at temperatures of 10 to 14
megakelvins .
Below 10 MK, the PP chain does not produce much
4He.
The pp II branch
| |
3He + 4He | → | 7Be + γ |
| |
7Be + e− | → | 7Li + νe |
| |
7Li + 1H | → | 4He + 4He |
The pp II branch is dominant at temperatures of 14 to 23 MK.
90% of the neutrinos produced in the reaction
7Be
7Li* carry an energy of 0.861 MeV, while the remaining 10% carry 0.383 MeV .
The pp III branch
| |
3He + 4He | → | 7Be + γ |
| |
7Be + 1H | → | 8B + γ |
| |
8B | → | 8Be + e+ + νe |
| |
8Be | ↔ | 4He + 4He |
The pp III chain is dominant if the temperatures exceeds 23 MK.
The pp III chain is not a major source of energy in the Sun , but was very important in the
solar neutrino problem because it generates very high energy neutrinos .
The pp IV or Hep
This reaction is predicted but has never been observed due to its great rarity . In this reaction, Helium-3 reacts directly with a proton to give helium-4, with an even higher possible neutrino energy .
- 3He + 1H → 4He + νe + e+
Energy release
Comparing the mass of the final helium-4 atom with the masses of the four protons reveals that 0.007 or 0.7% of the mass of the original protons has been lost. This mass has been converted into energy, in the form of gamma rays and neutrinos released during each of the individual reactions. The total energy we get in one whole chain is 26.73 MeV.
Only energy released as gamma rays will interact with electrons and protons and heat the interior of the Sun. This heating supports the Sun and prevents it from collapsing under its own weight.
Neutrinos do not interact significantly with matter and do not help support the Sun against gravitational collapse. The neutrinos in the ppI, ppII and ppIII chains carry away the 2.0%, 4.0% and 28.3% of the energy respectively.
The pep reaction
Deuterium can also be produced by the rare pep reaction :
- 1H + e− + 1H → 2H + νe
In the Sun, the frequency of pep reaction versus pp reaction is 1:400. However the neutrinos released are far more energetic: while neutrinos produced in the first step of the pp reaction range in energy up to 0.42 MeV, the neutrinos from the pep reaction produce sharp-energy-line neutrinos of 1.44 MeV.
References
See also
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