Pastor aeternus
Encyclopedia
Pastor aeternus is the incipit
of the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ, issued by the First Vatican Council
, July 18, 1870. According to The Modern Catholic Dictionary, Pastor aeternus defines four doctrines of the Catholic faith: the apostolic primacy conferred on Peter
, the perpetuity of the Petrine Primacy
in the Roman pontiffs, the meaning and power of the papal primacy, and the infallible teaching authority (magisterium
) of the Roman Pontiff
.
is closely related to, and indeed essential to, the Papal Primacy
, that is, the idea that the papacy, by divine institution, enjoys delegated authority from Jesus over the entire Church. However, this doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church
makes a distinction between the personal prestige of Peter and the supremacy of the office of pope
which Catholics believe Jesus instituted in the person of Peter.
defined the primacy of the bishop of Rome over the whole Catholic Church as an essential institution of the Church that can never be relinquished. This primacy is thus crucial to the understanding of the church from a Catholic viewpoint.
of papal primacy is the apostolic
authority
of the Bishop of Rome as the Successor of the Prince of the Apostles (haereditas Petri) and Vicar of Christ
. Only the Roman Pontiff, as Vicar of Christ
(Vicarius Christi), receive from Jesus Christ the gift of saint Peter
(munus petrinum). In the primacy
of the See of Rome we have to distinguish a theological-dogmatic concept
(Sancta
, Prima
et Apostolica Sedes
) from a juridical one (Romana
Sedes
). The theological-dogmatic and juridical concept
is expressed in the meaning of Roman Church (Ecclesia Romana). The romanity (romanitas
) is the juridical expression of the dogmatic-theological foundation of the petrinity (petrinitas). The dogmatic-theological concept
is expressed by saint Ambrose of Milan: "Ubi Petrus
, ibi Ecclesia
, ibi Deus
".
of the Bishop of Rome we have to distinguish between ex cathedra
(magisterium
infallibile et solemne) and ex sede (magisterium
ordinarium) based on the munus petrinum veri in terris Vicarii Christi. The Successor of Peter has in the Universal Church a doctrinal gift ("munus doctrinae") and a teaching gift ("officium
praedicationis") in faith
and morality
(in fide et moribus) for the special charisma
(peculiare charisma Petri) of the "Prince
of the Apostles" (Princeps Apostolorum). The Successor of Peter, for his singular and communional gift of primacy
("singulare et communionale munus primatialis") has an apostolic
power ("potestas
apostolica") and an episcopal
power ("potestas
episcopalis"). Only the Bishop
of Rome is in the Universal Church Primas and Apostolicus . The Church of Rome, in fact, is theological place (locus theologicus) of doctrine
(ex cathedra
) and teaching (ex sede) of the Universal Church ("cathedra
et sedes
universalis Ecclesiae"). The gift of the Roman Pontiff is expressed in his title of Magister
and Doctor
. Only the Church of Rome is the "Mother" (Mater) and "Teacher" (Magistra) of all churches. This is the reason because the First and Apostolic See of the Church of Rome is Nutrix ac Doctrix. The See of Rome is "Genitrix spiritualis".
magisterium, which originally meant the office of a president, chief, director, superintendent, etc. (in particular, though rarely, the office of tutor or instructor of youth, tutorship, guardianship) or teaching, instruction, advice.
In the Roman Catholic Church
the word "Magisterium" refers to the teaching authority of the church. This authority is understood to be embodied in the episcopacy, which is the aggregation of the current bishop
s of the church, led by the Bishop of Rome (the Pope
), who has authority over the bishops, individually and as a body, as well as over each and every Catholic directly. According to Catholic doctrine
, the Magisterium is able to teach or interpret the truths of the Faith, and it does so either non-infallibly or infallibly
(see chart below).
"The task of interpreting the Word of God
authentically has been entrusted solely to the Magisterium of the Church, that is, to the Pope and to the bishops in communion
with him."
, the First Vatican Council
declared the following, with bishops Aloisio Riccio
and Edward Fitzgerald
dissenting:
According to Catholic theology, this is an infallible dogmatic definition
by an ecumenical council
. Because the 1870 definition is not seen by Catholics as a creation of the Church, but as the dogmatic definition of a Truth about the Papal Magisterium, Papal teachings made prior to the 1870 proclamation can, if they meet the criteria set out in the dogmatic definition, be considered infallible. Ineffabilis Deus
is an example of this.
, presenting the passage of the infallibility definition as orchestrated. Roger O'Toole described Hasler's work as follows: "
Mark E. Powell, in his examination of the topic from a Protestant point of view, writes: "August Hasler portrays Pius IX as an uneducated, abusive megalomaniac, and Vatican I as a council that was not free. Hasler, though, is engaged in heated polemic and obviously exaggerates his picture of Pius IX. Accounts like Hasler's, which paint Pius IX and Vatican I in the most negative terms, are adequately refuted by the testimony of participants at Vatican I".
Incipit
Incipit is a Latin word meaning "it begins". The incipit of a text, such as a poem, song, or book, is the first few words of its opening line. In music, it can also refer to the opening notes of a composition. Before the development of titles, texts were often referred to by their incipits...
of the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ, issued by the First Vatican Council
First Vatican Council
The First Vatican Council was convoked by Pope Pius IX on 29 June 1868, after a period of planning and preparation that began on 6 December 1864. This twentieth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, held three centuries after the Council of Trent, opened on 8 December 1869 and adjourned...
, July 18, 1870. According to The Modern Catholic Dictionary, Pastor aeternus defines four doctrines of the Catholic faith: the apostolic primacy conferred on Peter
Primacy of Simon Peter
Most Christians hold that Simon Peter was the most prominent of the Apostles, called the Prince of the Apostles and favored by Jesus of Nazareth. As such, it is argued that Peter held the first place of honor and authority...
, the perpetuity of the Petrine Primacy
Petrine doctrine
The Petrine Doctrine is based upon Catholic tradition, which proclaims the legitimacy and supremacy of the Pope over all other bishops of the Catholic Church. This Doctrine is founded upon the book of Matthew in the Bible. Matthew 16: 18-19 states: "18 And I say unto thee, That thou art Peter,...
in the Roman pontiffs, the meaning and power of the papal primacy, and the infallible teaching authority (magisterium
Magisterium
In the Catholic Church the Magisterium is the teaching authority of the Church. This authority is understood to be embodied in the episcopacy, which is the aggregation of the current bishops of the Church in union with the Pope, led by the Bishop of Rome , who has authority over the bishops,...
) of the Roman Pontiff
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
.
Primacy of Simon Peter
The Primacy of Simon PeterPrimacy of Simon Peter
Most Christians hold that Simon Peter was the most prominent of the Apostles, called the Prince of the Apostles and favored by Jesus of Nazareth. As such, it is argued that Peter held the first place of honor and authority...
is closely related to, and indeed essential to, the Papal Primacy
Primacy of the Roman Pontiff
The primacy of the Bishop of Rome is an ecclesiastical doctrine held by some branches of Christianity, most notably the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion. The doctrine concerns the respect and authority that is due to the Bishop of Rome from bishops and their...
, that is, the idea that the papacy, by divine institution, enjoys delegated authority from Jesus over the entire Church. However, this doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
makes a distinction between the personal prestige of Peter and the supremacy of the office of pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
which Catholics believe Jesus instituted in the person of Peter.
Petrine doctrine
Vatican Council IFirst Vatican Council
The First Vatican Council was convoked by Pope Pius IX on 29 June 1868, after a period of planning and preparation that began on 6 December 1864. This twentieth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, held three centuries after the Council of Trent, opened on 8 December 1869 and adjourned...
defined the primacy of the bishop of Rome over the whole Catholic Church as an essential institution of the Church that can never be relinquished. This primacy is thus crucial to the understanding of the church from a Catholic viewpoint.
The nature of Roman primacy
The theological and dogmatic conceptConcept
The word concept is used in ordinary language as well as in almost all academic disciplines. Particularly in philosophy, psychology and cognitive sciences the term is much used and much discussed. WordNet defines concept: "conception, construct ". However, the meaning of the term concept is much...
of papal primacy is the apostolic
Apostolic See
In Christianity, an apostolic see is any episcopal see whose foundation is attributed to one or more of the apostles of Jesus.Out of the many such sees, five acquired special importance in Chalcedonian Christianity and became classified as the Pentarchy in Eastern Orthodox Christianity...
authority
Authority
The word Authority is derived mainly from the Latin word auctoritas, meaning invention, advice, opinion, influence, or command. In English, the word 'authority' can be used to mean power given by the state or by academic knowledge of an area .-Authority in Philosophy:In...
of the Bishop of Rome as the Successor of the Prince of the Apostles (haereditas Petri) and Vicar of Christ
Vicar of Christ
Vicar of Christ is a term used in different ways, with different theological connotations throughout history...
. Only the Roman Pontiff, as Vicar of Christ
Vicar of Christ
Vicar of Christ is a term used in different ways, with different theological connotations throughout history...
(Vicarius Christi), receive from Jesus Christ the gift of saint Peter
Saint Peter
Saint Peter or Simon Peter was an early Christian leader, who is featured prominently in the New Testament Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. The son of John or of Jonah and from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee, his brother Andrew was also an apostle...
(munus petrinum). In the primacy
Primacy of the Roman Pontiff
The primacy of the Bishop of Rome is an ecclesiastical doctrine held by some branches of Christianity, most notably the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion. The doctrine concerns the respect and authority that is due to the Bishop of Rome from bishops and their...
of the See of Rome we have to distinguish a theological-dogmatic concept
Concept
The word concept is used in ordinary language as well as in almost all academic disciplines. Particularly in philosophy, psychology and cognitive sciences the term is much used and much discussed. WordNet defines concept: "conception, construct ". However, the meaning of the term concept is much...
(Sancta
Sancta
Sancta may refer to :*The Scala Sancta is a Christian monument in Rome, Italy.*Sancta Susanna is an early opera by Paul Hindemith in one act.*Sancta Civitas is an oratorio by Ralph Vaughan Williams....
, Prima
Prima
Prima may refer to:*Prima , a human rights news agency in Moscow*Prima , a locomotive type by Alstom*Prima , an Autobot leader in Transformers*Prima TV, a Romanian television channel...
et Apostolica Sedes
Sedes
Sedes is one of the oldest Polish punk rock band playing since 1980- Members :*Młody - vocals, bass guitar*Rudy – drums*Wojtek – guitar*Para - bass guitar-The beginnings:...
) from a juridical one (Romana
Romana
Romana, short for Romanadvoratrelundar, is a fictional character in the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who...
Sedes
Sedes
Sedes is one of the oldest Polish punk rock band playing since 1980- Members :*Młody - vocals, bass guitar*Rudy – drums*Wojtek – guitar*Para - bass guitar-The beginnings:...
). The theological-dogmatic and juridical concept
Concept
The word concept is used in ordinary language as well as in almost all academic disciplines. Particularly in philosophy, psychology and cognitive sciences the term is much used and much discussed. WordNet defines concept: "conception, construct ". However, the meaning of the term concept is much...
is expressed in the meaning of Roman Church (Ecclesia Romana). The romanity (romanitas
Romanitas
Romanità also termed Romanitas in English referring to "Roman-ness" or the Roman ideal the refers to an immiscibly Latin culture of the Roman Empire. Cicero contributed much to the notion....
) is the juridical expression of the dogmatic-theological foundation of the petrinity (petrinitas). The dogmatic-theological concept
Concept
The word concept is used in ordinary language as well as in almost all academic disciplines. Particularly in philosophy, psychology and cognitive sciences the term is much used and much discussed. WordNet defines concept: "conception, construct ". However, the meaning of the term concept is much...
is expressed by saint Ambrose of Milan: "Ubi Petrus
Petrus
Petrus is a Latin name derived from the Greek meaning "rock", and is the common English prefix "petro-" used to describe rock-based substances, like petros-oleum or "rock oil." As the source of Peter, it is a common name for people from antiquity through the medieval era, and may refer to one of...
, ibi Ecclesia
Christian Church
The Christian Church is the assembly or association of followers of Jesus Christ. The Greek term ἐκκλησία that in its appearances in the New Testament is usually translated as "church" basically means "assembly"...
, ibi Deus
Deus
Deus is Latin for "god" or "deity".Latin deus and dīvus "divine", are descended from Proto-Indo-European *deiwos, from the same root as *Dyēus, the reconstructed chief god of the Proto-Indo-European pantheon...
".
Ex cathedra
In the primacyPrimacy of the Roman Pontiff
The primacy of the Bishop of Rome is an ecclesiastical doctrine held by some branches of Christianity, most notably the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion. The doctrine concerns the respect and authority that is due to the Bishop of Rome from bishops and their...
of the Bishop of Rome we have to distinguish between ex cathedra
Ex Cathedra
Ex Cathedra is a British choir and early music ensemble based in Birmingham in the West Midlands, England. It performs choral music spanning the 15th to 21st centuries, and regularly commissions new works....
(magisterium
Magisterium
In the Catholic Church the Magisterium is the teaching authority of the Church. This authority is understood to be embodied in the episcopacy, which is the aggregation of the current bishops of the Church in union with the Pope, led by the Bishop of Rome , who has authority over the bishops,...
infallibile et solemne) and ex sede (magisterium
Magisterium
In the Catholic Church the Magisterium is the teaching authority of the Church. This authority is understood to be embodied in the episcopacy, which is the aggregation of the current bishops of the Church in union with the Pope, led by the Bishop of Rome , who has authority over the bishops,...
ordinarium) based on the munus petrinum veri in terris Vicarii Christi. The Successor of Peter has in the Universal Church a doctrinal gift ("munus doctrinae") and a teaching gift ("officium
Officium
Officium is a Latin word with various meanings in Ancient Rome, including "service", " duty", "courtesy", "ceremony" and the like...
praedicationis") in faith
Faith
Faith is confidence or trust in a person or thing, or a belief that is not based on proof. In religion, faith is a belief in a transcendent reality, a religious teacher, a set of teachings or a Supreme Being. Generally speaking, it is offered as a means by which the truth of the proposition,...
and morality
Morality
Morality is the differentiation among intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are good and bad . A moral code is a system of morality and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code...
(in fide et moribus) for the special charisma
Charisma
The term charisma has two senses: 1) compelling attractiveness or charm that can inspire devotion in others, 2) a divinely conferred power or talent. For some theological usages the term is rendered charism, with a meaning the same as sense 2...
(peculiare charisma Petri) of the "Prince
Prince
Prince is a general term for a ruler, monarch or member of a monarch's or former monarch's family, and is a hereditary title in the nobility of some European states. The feminine equivalent is a princess...
of the Apostles" (Princeps Apostolorum). The Successor of Peter, for his singular and communional gift of primacy
Primacy of the Roman Pontiff
The primacy of the Bishop of Rome is an ecclesiastical doctrine held by some branches of Christianity, most notably the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion. The doctrine concerns the respect and authority that is due to the Bishop of Rome from bishops and their...
("singulare et communionale munus primatialis") has an apostolic
Apostolic See
In Christianity, an apostolic see is any episcopal see whose foundation is attributed to one or more of the apostles of Jesus.Out of the many such sees, five acquired special importance in Chalcedonian Christianity and became classified as the Pentarchy in Eastern Orthodox Christianity...
power ("potestas
Potestas
Potestas is a Latin word meaning power or faculty. It is an important concept in Roman Law.-Origin of the concept:The idea of potestas originally referred to the power, through coercion, of a Roman magistrate to promulgate edicts, give action to litigants, etc. This power, in Roman political and...
apostolica") and an episcopal
Bishop
A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
power ("potestas
Potestas
Potestas is a Latin word meaning power or faculty. It is an important concept in Roman Law.-Origin of the concept:The idea of potestas originally referred to the power, through coercion, of a Roman magistrate to promulgate edicts, give action to litigants, etc. This power, in Roman political and...
episcopalis"). Only the Bishop
Bishop
A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
of Rome is in the Universal Church Primas and Apostolicus . The Church of Rome, in fact, is theological place (locus theologicus) of doctrine
Doctrine
Doctrine is a codification of beliefs or a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the body of teachings in a branch of knowledge or belief system...
(ex cathedra
Ex Cathedra
Ex Cathedra is a British choir and early music ensemble based in Birmingham in the West Midlands, England. It performs choral music spanning the 15th to 21st centuries, and regularly commissions new works....
) and teaching (ex sede) of the Universal Church ("cathedra
Cathedra
A cathedra or bishop's throne is the chair or throne of a bishop. It is a symbol of the bishop's teaching authority in the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church, and has in some sense remained such in the Anglican Communion and in Lutheran churches...
et sedes
Sedes
Sedes is one of the oldest Polish punk rock band playing since 1980- Members :*Młody - vocals, bass guitar*Rudy – drums*Wojtek – guitar*Para - bass guitar-The beginnings:...
universalis Ecclesiae"). The gift of the Roman Pontiff is expressed in his title of Magister
Magister
Magister is Latin for "master" or "teacher." It may refer to:* The Magister , an academic degreePositions or titles* A magister equitum, or Master of the Horse...
and Doctor
Doctor (title)
Doctor, as a title, originates from the Latin word of the same spelling and meaning. The word is originally an agentive noun of the Latin verb docēre . It has been used as an honored academic title for over a millennium in Europe, where it dates back to the rise of the university. This use spread...
. Only the Church of Rome is the "Mother" (Mater) and "Teacher" (Magistra) of all churches. This is the reason because the First and Apostolic See of the Church of Rome is Nutrix ac Doctrix. The See of Rome is "Genitrix spiritualis".
Magisterium
Magisterium is a "teaching authority, of the Roman Catholic Church". The word is derived from LatinLatin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
magisterium, which originally meant the office of a president, chief, director, superintendent, etc. (in particular, though rarely, the office of tutor or instructor of youth, tutorship, guardianship) or teaching, instruction, advice.
In the Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
the word "Magisterium" refers to the teaching authority of the church. This authority is understood to be embodied in the episcopacy, which is the aggregation of the current bishop
Bishop
A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
s of the church, led by the Bishop of Rome (the Pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
), who has authority over the bishops, individually and as a body, as well as over each and every Catholic directly. According to Catholic doctrine
Doctrine
Doctrine is a codification of beliefs or a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the body of teachings in a branch of knowledge or belief system...
, the Magisterium is able to teach or interpret the truths of the Faith, and it does so either non-infallibly or infallibly
Infallibility of the Church
The Infallibility of the Church is the belief that the Holy Spirit will not allow the Church to err in its belief or teaching under certain circumstances...
(see chart below).
"The task of interpreting the Word of God
God
God is the English name given to a singular being in theistic and deistic religions who is either the sole deity in monotheism, or a single deity in polytheism....
authentically has been entrusted solely to the Magisterium of the Church, that is, to the Pope and to the bishops in communion
Communion (Christian)
The term communion is derived from Latin communio . The corresponding term in Greek is κοινωνία, which is often translated as "fellowship". In Christianity, the basic meaning of the term communion is an especially close relationship of Christians, as individuals or as a Church, with God and with...
with him."
Dogmatic definition of 1870
The infallibility of the pope was thus formally defined in 1870, although the tradition behind this view goes back much further. In the conclusion of the fourth chapter of its Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Pastor AeternusPastor aeternus
Pastor aeternus is the incipit of the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ, issued by the First Vatican Council, July 18, 1870. According to The Modern Catholic Dictionary, Pastor aeternus defines four doctrines of the Catholic faith: the apostolic primacy conferred on Peter, the...
, the First Vatican Council
First Vatican Council
The First Vatican Council was convoked by Pope Pius IX on 29 June 1868, after a period of planning and preparation that began on 6 December 1864. This twentieth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, held three centuries after the Council of Trent, opened on 8 December 1869 and adjourned...
declared the following, with bishops Aloisio Riccio
Aloisio Riccio
A Sicilian Bishop in the Roman Catholic Church, Monsignor Luigi Aloisio Riccio was one of two to vote against the doctrine of papal infallibility, which received 433 votes in support, in the 1870 First Vatican Council....
and Edward Fitzgerald
Edward Fitzgerald (bishop)
Edward Mary Fitzgerald was an Irish-born prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Bishop of Little Rock from 1867 until his death in 1907.-Biography:...
dissenting:
According to Catholic theology, this is an infallible dogmatic definition
Dogmatic definition
In Catholicism, a dogmatic definition is an extraordinary infallible statement published by a pope or an ecumenical council concerning a matter of faith or morals, the belief in which the Catholic Church requires of all Christians .The term most often refers to the infallible...
by an ecumenical council
Ecumenical council
An ecumenical council is a conference of ecclesiastical dignitaries and theological experts convened to discuss and settle matters of Church doctrine and practice....
. Because the 1870 definition is not seen by Catholics as a creation of the Church, but as the dogmatic definition of a Truth about the Papal Magisterium, Papal teachings made prior to the 1870 proclamation can, if they meet the criteria set out in the dogmatic definition, be considered infallible. Ineffabilis Deus
Ineffabilis Deus
Ineffabilis Deus is the name of a Papal bull by Pope Pius IX. It defines ex cathedra the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary...
is an example of this.
Constitutio Dogmatica Pastor Aeternus
Opposition and criticism
The Catholic priest August Bernhard Hasler (d. 3 July 1980) wrote a detailed analysis of the First Vatican CouncilFirst Vatican Council
The First Vatican Council was convoked by Pope Pius IX on 29 June 1868, after a period of planning and preparation that began on 6 December 1864. This twentieth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, held three centuries after the Council of Trent, opened on 8 December 1869 and adjourned...
, presenting the passage of the infallibility definition as orchestrated. Roger O'Toole described Hasler's work as follows: "
- It weakens or demolishes the claim that Papal Infallibility was already a universally accepted truth, and that its formal definition merely made de jure what had long been acknowledged de facto.
- It emphasizes the extent of resistance to the definition, particularly in France and Germany.
- It clarifies the 'inopportunist' position as largely a polite fiction and notes how it was used by Infallibilists to trivialize the nature of the opposition to papal claims.
- It indicates the extent to which 'spontaneous popular demand' for the definition was, in fact, carefully orchestrated.
- It underlines the personal involvement of the Pope who, despite his coy disclaimers, appears as the prime mover and driving force behind the Infallibilist campaign.
- It details the lengths to which the papacy was prepared to go in wringing formal 'submissions' from the minority even after their defeat in the Council.
- It offers insight into the ideological basis of the dogma in European political conservatism, monarchism and counter-revolution.
- It establishes the doctrine as a key contributing element in the present 'crisis' of the Roman Catholic Church."
Mark E. Powell, in his examination of the topic from a Protestant point of view, writes: "August Hasler portrays Pius IX as an uneducated, abusive megalomaniac, and Vatican I as a council that was not free. Hasler, though, is engaged in heated polemic and obviously exaggerates his picture of Pius IX. Accounts like Hasler's, which paint Pius IX and Vatican I in the most negative terms, are adequately refuted by the testimony of participants at Vatican I".