The
music of JamaicaJamaica is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width, amounting to 11,100 km
2. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola, the island harboring the nation-states Haiti and the Dominican Republic...
includes Jamaican folk music and many popular genres, such as
mentoMento is a style of Jamaican folk music that predates and has greatly influenced ska and reggae music. Mento typically features acoustic instruments, such as acoustic guitar, banjo, hand drums, and the rhumba box — a large mbira in the shape of a box that can be sat on while played...
,
skaSka is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1950s, and was the precursor to rocksteady and reggae. Ska combined elements of Caribbean mento and calypso with American jazz and rhythm and blues...
,
rocksteadyRocksteady is a music genre that was most popular in Jamaica, starting around 1966, and its reggae successor was established around 1968.The term rocksteady comes from a dance style that was mentioned in the Alton Ellis song "Rock Steady"...
,
reggaeReggae is a music genre first developed in Jamaica in the late 1960s.While sometimes used in a broader sense to refer to most types of Jamaican music, the term reggae more properly denotes a particular music style that originated following on the development of ska and rocksteady. Reggae is based...
,
dub musicDub is an instrumental subgenre of reggae music, that involves revisions of existing songs. The dub sound consists predominantly of instrumental remixes of existing recordings and is achieved by significantly manipulating and reshaping the recordings, usually by removing the vocals from an existing...
,
dancehallDancehall is a genre of Jamaican popular music that developed in the late 1970s, initially as a more sparse and less political and religious variant of reggae than the roots style that had dominated much of the 1970s....
,
reggae fusionReggae fusion, or reggaefusion, is a term that is used to describe the style of mixing reggae or dancehall with different influential elements of other genres whether it be hip hop, r&b,pop, techno or house, rock, alternative, jazz, drum and bass etc....
and related styles. Jamaica's music culture is a fusion of elements from the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
(
rhythm and bluesRhythm and blues is the name given to a wide-ranging genre of popular music created by African Americans in the late 1940s and early 1950s...
,
rock and rollRock and roll is a genre of popular music that evolved in the United States after World War II in the late 1940s, from a combination of the rhythms of the blues, from the African American culture, and from America's country music and gospel music scenes...
,
soulSoul music is a music genre originating in the United States combining elements of gospel music and rhythm and blues. According to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, soul is "music that arose out of the black experience in America through the transmutation of gospel and rhythm & blues into a form of...
),
AfricaAfrica is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area. With a billion people in 61 territories, it accounts for about 14.8% of the...
and neighboring
CaribbeanThe Caribbean is a region consisting of the Caribbean Sea, its islands , and the surrounding coasts...
islands such as
TrinidadTrinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands and numerous landforms which make up the country of Trinidad and Tobago. It is the southernmost island in the Caribbean and lies just 11 km off the northeastern coast of Venezuela. With an area of 4,768 km² it is also the fifth...
calypsoCalypso is a style of Afro-Caribbean music which originated in Trinidad and Tobago.- Caribbean history :The islands had a core population of descendants of African slaves and workers and remnants of the indigenes, while colonial masters changed rapidly bringing settlers from France, Spain and the...
) and
SocaThe Soča or Isonzo or Lusinç or Sontig is a 140 km long river that flows through Western Slovenia and North-Eastern Italy. An Alpine river in character, its source lies in the Trenta Valley in the Julian Alps in Slovenia, at around 1,100 metres of altitude...
. Reggae is especially popular through the international fame of
Bob MarleyRobert Nesta "Bob" Marley was a Jamaican singer-songwriter and musician. He was the lead singer, songwriter and guitarist for the ska, rocksteady and reggae bands The Wailers and Bob Marley & The Wailers...
. Jamaican music's influence on music styles in other countries includes the practice of toasting, which was brought to
New York CityNew York is the most populous city in the United States, and the center of the New York metropolitan area, which is among the most populous urban areas in the world. A leading global city, New York exerts a powerful influence over worldwide commerce, finance, culture, fashion and entertainment...
and evolved into
rappingRapping is the rhythmic spoken delivery of rhymes, wordplay, and poetry. Rapping is a primary ingredient in hip hop music, but the phenomenon predates hip hop culture by centuries. Rapping can be delivered over a beat or without accompaniment...
. British genres as
Lovers rockLovers rock is a style of reggae music noted for its romantic sound and content. While love songs had been an important part of reggae since the late 1960s, the style was given a greater focus and a name in London in the mid 1970s.-History:...
and
jungle musicRagga jungle is the type of music that emerged circa 1989-1990 and is initially heavily based on production of Michael West...
are influenced by Jamaican music.
Folk music
In 1907, a collection of 108 Jamaican folk songs was published in Walter Jekyll's
Jamaican Song and Story. Unlike much other Jamaican music, these folk songs are in the public domain. They served as the basis for much research in Jamaican folk music and folklore, and several (along with other folk songs) were arranged by
Olive LewinDr. Olive Lewin is a Jamaican author, social anthropologist, musicologist, and teacher. Dr.Lewin is probably best known for her recorded anthologies of old Jamaica folk songs, researched and collected over her lifetime. Olive Lewin studied music and ethnomusicology in the United Kingdom...
and published by
Oxford University PressOxford house Press is the largest university press in the world. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the Vice-Chancellor known as the Delegates of the Press. they are headed by the Secretary to the Delegates, who serves as OUP's...
. Several melodies in the Jekyll and Lewin collections, such as "
Linstead MarketLinstead Market is a Jamaican folk song. Possibly the earliest publication of the tune with words occurs in Walter Jekyll's 1907 book, Jamaican Song and Story, as [], pages 219-220. In Jekyll, the lyrics are as follows:...
", were adapted to other styles, including
mentoMento is a style of Jamaican folk music that predates and has greatly influenced ska and reggae music. Mento typically features acoustic instruments, such as acoustic guitar, banjo, hand drums, and the rhumba box — a large mbira in the shape of a box that can be sat on while played...
.
Mento
MentoMento is a style of Jamaican folk music that predates and has greatly influenced ska and reggae music. Mento typically features acoustic instruments, such as acoustic guitar, banjo, hand drums, and the rhumba box — a large mbira in the shape of a box that can be sat on while played...
was recorded in Jamaica in the 1950s due to the efforts of Stanley Motta, who noted the similarities between Jamaican folk and
TrinidadTrinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands and numerous landforms which make up the country of Trinidad and Tobago. It is the southernmost island in the Caribbean and lies just 11 km off the northeastern coast of Venezuela. With an area of 4,768 km² it is also the fifth...
ian
calypsoCalypso is a style of Afro-Caribbean music which originated in Trinidad and Tobago.- Caribbean history :The islands had a core population of descendants of African slaves and workers and remnants of the indigenes, while colonial masters changed rapidly bringing settlers from France, Spain and the...
, which was becoming popular around the world. For decades, mento bands toured the big hotels in Jamaica. While mento never found as large an international audience as calypso, some of mento recordings, such as by Count Lasher, Lord Composer and George Moxey, are now widely-respected legends of Jamaican music. Although mento has largely been supplanted by successors like reggae and dub, the style is still performed, recorded, and released internationally by traditionalist performers like the Jolly Boys.
Sound systems
Mobile sound systems that played American hits became popular in the 1950s in
Kingston, JamaicaKingston is the capital and largest city of Jamaica and is located on the southeastern coast of the island country. It faces a natural harbour protected by the Palisadoes, a long sand spit which connects Port Royal and the Norman Manley International Airport to the rest of the island...
. Major figures in the early sound system scene included
Duke ReidArthur "Duke" Reid, CD born 1915 in Portland, Jamaica, died 1975 ,was a Jamaican record producer, DJ and label owner.He ran one of the most popular sound systems of the 1950s called Duke Reid's the Trojan after the British-made trucks used to transport the equipment...
,
Prince BusterCecil Bustamente Campbell, O.D. , better known as Prince Buster and also known by his Muslim name Muhammed Yusef Ali, is a musician from Kingston, Jamaica is regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of ska and rocksteady music...
and Sir Coxsone Dodd. In 1958, due to a shortage of new material, the first local
rhythm and bluesRhythm and blues is the name given to a wide-ranging genre of popular music created by African Americans in the late 1940s and early 1950s...
bands, most influentially the duo
Higgs and WilsonHiggs and Wilson were a Jamaican singing duo, consisting of Joe Higgs and Roy Wilson.Higgs And Wilson were one of Jamaica's first indigenous recording artists, and their debut single, "Oh Manny Oh", sold over 50,000 copies in Jamaica in 1960. In the early 1960s they worked with the producer Coxsone...
(
Joe HiggsJoe Higgs was a reggae musician from Jamaica. In the 1960s he was part of the duo Higgs and Wilson together with Roy Wilson.-Biography:...
and
Roy WilsonRoy Edward Wilson was a relief pitcher in Major League Baseball.He played briefly for the Chicago White Sox during the 1928 season. Wilson batted and threw left-handed....
), began recording to fulfil the local demand for new music. Rupert E. Brown was the original owner of the "King Attarney" sound system, which was popular from 1975 to 1976. His only album was
Dubbing to the King In A Higher Rank. The DJ crew that worked for King Attarney was Danny Dread, U-Roy, and Ranking Trevor.
Ska
SkaSka is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1950s, and was the precursor to rocksteady and reggae. Ska combined elements of Caribbean mento and calypso with American jazz and rhythm and blues...
originated in the late 1950s in Jamaica. Some of the first songs identified as ska were "Manny-O" by Joe Higgs (1958), "Easy Snapping" by
Theophilus BeckfordTheophilus Beckford , also known by the nickname "Snappin'", was a Jamaican pianist who was one of the pioneers of indigenous Jamaican music.-Biography:...
(1959), and "Oh! Carolina" by the Folkes Brothers (1960). "
Simmer Down"Simmer Down" was the first single released by The Wailers, accompanied by the ska supergroup, The Skatalites, and produced by Clement "Coxsone" Dodd in 1963...
", a huge ska hit, was recorded by
The WailersThe Wailers were a ska, rocksteady, and reggae group formed in Kingston, Jamaica in 1963, consisting of Bob Marley, Junior Braithwaite, Beverley Kelso, Bunny Wailer, Peter Tosh, and Cherry Smith....
in 1963. Perhaps the best-known of the original ska bands were
The SkatalitesThe Skatalites are a ska band from Jamaica. They played initially between 1963 and 1965, and recorded many of their best known songs in the period, including "Guns of Navarone". They also played on records by Prince Buster and many other Jamaican artists who recorded during the period...
, whose career spanned decades and transcended Jamaican musical genres. The Skatalites' music launched the careers of
Tommy McCookTommy McCook was a Jamaican saxophonist. A founding member of The Skatalites, he also directed The Supersonics for Duke Reid, and backed many sessions for Bunny Lee or with The Revolutionaries at Channel One Studios in the 1970s.-Biography:McCook was born in Havana, Cuba, and moved to Jamaica in...
, virtuoso trombonist
Don DrummondDon Drummond was a famous ska trombonist and composer. He was one of the original members of The Skatalites, and composed many of their tunes....
and tenor saxophonist, and fellow Alpha Boys School graduates
Roland AlphonsoRoland Alphonso O.M. or Rolando Alphonso aka The Chief Musician was a Jamaican tenor saxophonist, and one of the founding members of The Skatalites....
,
Jackie MittooJackie Mittoo was a Jamaican keyboardist, songwriter and musical director. He was a founding member of The Skatalites and was a mentor to many younger performers, primarily through his work as musical director for the Studio One record label.-Biography:He was born Donat Roy Mittoo in Browns Town,...
, and
Lester SterlingLester Sterling is a Jamaican trumpet and saxophone player.-Biography:A founding member of The Skatalites, he is commonly overshadowed by well-known band members such as Tommy McCook, Jackie Mittoo or Don Drummond...
. .
At first primarily instrumental, ska's rhythms generally didn't lend well to vocal stylings. However, some popular singers such as
Desmond DekkerDesmond Dekker was a Jamaican ska, rocksteady and reggae singer–songwriter and musician. Together with his backing group, The Aces , he had one of the first international Jamaican hits with "Israelites". Other hits include "007 " and "It Miek"...
,
Toots HibbertToots Hibbert is a ska and roots reggae singer and leader of the reggae band Toots & the Maytals.-Biography:...
and
Bob MarleyRobert Nesta "Bob" Marley was a Jamaican singer-songwriter and musician. He was the lead singer, songwriter and guitarist for the ska, rocksteady and reggae bands The Wailers and Bob Marley & The Wailers...
got their start by singing in this style. This new style was widely embraced by Jamaican youths, and soon became popular in the
United KingdomThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands...
and around the world. In 1963,
Chris BlackwellChris Blackwell is the founder of Island Records. Born in London to an Irish father and a Costa Rican-born Sephardic Jewish mother. Blackwell spent his childhood in Jamaica. He was sent to England to continue his education at Harrow School. Deciding not to go to university, he returned to...
brought teenage singer
Millie SmallMillie was often known as "Little Millie Small", and in the United States as "Millie Small", and is best known as the singer of the 1964 hit, "My Boy Lollipop".-Career:...
to Great Britain. She exploded on the scene with
My Boy Lollipop"My Boy Lollipop" is a song written in the mid-1950s and usually credited to Robert Spencer, Morris Levy and Johnny Roberts. It was originally recorded by the American singer Barbie Gaye and became a minor Rhythm & Blues hit in late 1956, spelled "My Boy Lollypop" on the original 78 record label...
, which climbed the charts to #2 in both Great Britain and the United States.
Live touring bands launched the careers of many ska, rocksteady and reggae artists.
Tommy McCookTommy McCook was a Jamaican saxophonist. A founding member of The Skatalites, he also directed The Supersonics for Duke Reid, and backed many sessions for Bunny Lee or with The Revolutionaries at Channel One Studios in the 1970s.-Biography:McCook was born in Havana, Cuba, and moved to Jamaica in...
had been part of the band of
Aubrey AdamsAubrey Adams was a Jamaican pianist and keyboard player who was one of the top bandleaders in Jamaica in the 1950s, and led the Dewdroppers as well as playing with Clue J & His Blues Blasters.-Biography:...
based at the Courtleigh Manor hotel in Kingston before becoming one of the founding members of the Skatalites. Drummer
Lloyd KnibbLloyd Knibb is a Jamaican drummer who is primarily known for his contribution to the development of the rhythm of the Ska era. He played for The Skatalites , and for Tommy McCook & The Supersonics...
, also of The Skatalites, had done the hotel circuit playing for the
Val BennettVal Bennett was a Jamaican tenor saxophonist and jazz and roots reggae musician who began his career in the 1940s. He made a number of releases on the Island Records and Crab Records labels.-Biography:...
, Len Hibbert and Cecil Lloyd bands. One of the most successful music groups in Jamaica was Billy Vernon and the Celestials, the resident band at the Yellow Bird Club in Montego Bay. They toured many of the island's leading hotels. Their work was a blend of ska, mento and jump up, and featured hits such as "Ska Suzanna", "Yellow Bird" and "
Wings Of A Dove"Wings of a Dove" is a song by Madness. It was released in 1983 as a stand-alone single and later in 1984 and it was included on the American version of their album Keep Moving...
". A number of artists, including Errol "E.T." Webster, also known as "Errol T," got their start in the music business with Billy Vernon and the Celestials."
Chris BlackwellChris Blackwell is the founder of Island Records. Born in London to an Irish father and a Costa Rican-born Sephardic Jewish mother. Blackwell spent his childhood in Jamaica. He was sent to England to continue his education at Harrow School. Deciding not to go to university, he returned to...
's
Island RecordsIsland Records is a record label that was founded by Chris Blackwell in Jamaica. It was based in England for many years, but is now owned by Universal Music Group and is operated in the United States through The Island Def Jam Music Group and in the UK through Island Records Group...
became the biggest label promoting Jamaican music to the international market. Due to its affiliation with the record industry in the UK and
First worldThe terms First World, Second World, and Third World were used to divide nations into three broad categories. The three terms did not arise simultaneously. After World War II, people began to speak of the NATO and Warsaw Pact countries as two major blocs, often using such terms as the "Western...
funding, Island had the distribution to vastly increase exposure of Jamaican music to the global pop market, especially in the UK, where a significant population of Jamaican expatriates had relocated on the invitation of the British government. Blackwell's early group of artists included
Millie SmallMillie was often known as "Little Millie Small", and in the United States as "Millie Small", and is best known as the singer of the 1964 hit, "My Boy Lollipop".-Career:...
, singer of the first major Jamaican music UK radio hit, 1964's "
My Boy Lollipop"My Boy Lollipop" is a song written in the mid-1950s and usually credited to Robert Spencer, Morris Levy and Johnny Roberts. It was originally recorded by the American singer Barbie Gaye and became a minor Rhythm & Blues hit in late 1956, spelled "My Boy Lollypop" on the original 78 record label...
" which settled high in the
UK Singles ChartThe UK Singles Chart is compiled by The Official Charts Company on behalf of the British record industry. The full chart contains the top 200 singles based upon combined record sales and download numbers, though some media outlets only list the Top 40 or the Top 75 of this list...
.
Ska's popularity grew steadily in Jamaica alongside Rastafari, which spread rapidly in impoverished urban areas, and among the often politically radical music scene. The lyrics of ska songs began to focus on Rastafarian themes; slower beats and chants entered the music from religious Rastafarian music, and ska soon evolved into
rocksteadyRocksteady is a music genre that was most popular in Jamaica, starting around 1966, and its reggae successor was established around 1968.The term rocksteady comes from a dance style that was mentioned in the Alton Ellis song "Rock Steady"...
.
DJs and toasting
Along with the rise of ska came the popularity of
DJA disc jockey is a person who selects and plays recorded music for an audience. Originally, dis
k referred to phonograph records, while dis
c referred to the Compact Disc, and has become the more common spelling...
s like
Sir Lord Comic-Biography:His career began as a dancer with the Admiral Dean sound system. In the late 1950s, following the lead of Count Machuki, he began deejaying with the sound system, and recorded what is considered the first deejay recording, "Ska-ing West" in 1966. Comic also recorded one of last great...
,
King StittKing Stitt, born Winston Spark , is a Jamaican DJ.- Biography :King Stitt is the oldest living Jamaican deejay. Sparkes was given the nickname Stitt as a boy and decided to use it as his stage name, becoming King Stitt when he was crowned 'king of the deejays'...
and pioneer
Count MatchukiWinston Cooper , better known as Count Matchuki or Count Machuki, was the first Jamaican deejay.-Biography:Cooper was born c.1939 in Kingston, Jamaica, and began working on sound systems in the 1950s, when the music played was largely American R&B. His stage name of Count Matchuki derived from his...
, who began talking stylistically over the rhythms of popular songs at sound systems. In Jamaican music, the DJ is the one who talks (known elsewhere as the
MCRapping is the rhythmic spoken delivery of rhymes, wordplay, and poetry. Rapping is a primary ingredient in hip hop music, but the phenomenon predates hip hop culture by centuries. Rapping can be delivered over a beat or without accompaniment...
) and the
selectorA selector can be:*Selector , a Reggae DJ *a DNA probe used in the selector-technique...
is the person who chooses the records. The popularity of DJs as an essential component of the sound system created a need for instrumental songs, as well as instrumental versions of popular vocal songs.
In the late 1960s, producers like
King TubbyKing Tubby was a Jamaican electronics and sound engineer, known primarily for his influence on the development of dub music in the 1960s and 1970s...
and Lee Perry began stripping the vocals away from tracks recorded for sound system parties. With the bare beats and bass playing and the lead instruments dropping in and out of the mix, DJs began toasting, or delivering humorous and often provoking jabs at fellow DJs and local celebrities. Over time, toasting became an increasingly complex activity, and became as big a draw as the dance beats played behind it. In the early 1970s, DJs such as
DJ Kool HercClive Campbell , also known as Kool Herc, DJ Kool Herc and Kool DJ Herc, is a Jamaican-born DJ who is credited with originating hip hop music, in the Bronx, New York City...
took the practice of toasting to
New York CityNew York is the most populous city in the United States, and the center of the New York metropolitan area, which is among the most populous urban areas in the world. A leading global city, New York exerts a powerful influence over worldwide commerce, finance, culture, fashion and entertainment...
, where it became a part of
rappingRapping is the rhythmic spoken delivery of rhymes, wordplay, and poetry. Rapping is a primary ingredient in hip hop music, but the phenomenon predates hip hop culture by centuries. Rapping can be delivered over a beat or without accompaniment...
.
Rocksteady
RocksteadyRocksteady is a music genre that was most popular in Jamaica, starting around 1966, and its reggae successor was established around 1968.The term rocksteady comes from a dance style that was mentioned in the Alton Ellis song "Rock Steady"...
was the music of Jamaica's
rude boyRude boy, rudeboy, rudie, rudi or rudy were common terms for juvenile delinquents and criminals in 1960s Jamaica, and have since been used in other contexts...
s by the mid-1960s, when
The WailersThe Wailers were a ska, rocksteady, and reggae group formed in Kingston, Jamaica in 1963, consisting of Bob Marley, Junior Braithwaite, Beverley Kelso, Bunny Wailer, Peter Tosh, and Cherry Smith....
and
The ClarendoniansThe Clarendonians were a ska and rocksteady vocal group from Jamaica, active from the mid to late 1960s.-History:The Clarendonians were originally Fitzroy "Ernest" Wilson and Peter Austin , the duo coming together in 1963 in their native Clarendon...
dominated the charts, taking over from pioneers like
Alton EllisAlton Nehemiah Ellis, OD, was a Jamaican musician best known as one of the innovators of rocksteady music and was often referred to as the "Godfather of Rocksteady". In 2006, he was inducted into the International Reggae And World Music Awards Hall Of Fame.-Biography:Ellis was born in 1938 and...
(who is believed to have invented rocksteady).
Desmond DekkerDesmond Dekker was a Jamaican ska, rocksteady and reggae singer–songwriter and musician. Together with his backing group, The Aces , he had one of the first international Jamaican hits with "Israelites". Other hits include "007 " and "It Miek"...
's "007" brought international attention to the new genre. The mix put heavy emphasis on the bass line, as opposed to ska's strong horn section, and the
rhythm guitarRhythm guitar is the use of a guitar to provide rhythmic chordal accompaniment for a singer or other instruments in a musical ensemble. In ensembles or "bands" playing within the acoustic, country, blues, rock or metal genres , a guitarist playing the rhythm part of a composition supports the...
began playing on the upbeat. Session musicians like Supersonics, Soul Vendors, Jets and
Jackie MittooJackie Mittoo was a Jamaican keyboardist, songwriter and musical director. He was a founding member of The Skatalites and was a mentor to many younger performers, primarily through his work as musical director for the Studio One record label.-Biography:He was born Donat Roy Mittoo in Browns Town,...
(of the Skatalites) became popular during this period.
Reggae
By the early 1970s, rocksteady had evolved into
reggaeReggae is a music genre first developed in Jamaica in the late 1960s.While sometimes used in a broader sense to refer to most types of Jamaican music, the term reggae more properly denotes a particular music style that originated following on the development of ska and rocksteady. Reggae is based...
, which combines elements from American
soul musicSoul music is a music genre originating in the United States combining elements of gospel music and rhythm and blues. According to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, soul is "music that arose out of the black experience in America through the transmutation of gospel and rhythm & blues into a form of...
with the traditional shuffle and one-drop of Jamaican
mentoMento is a style of Jamaican folk music that predates and has greatly influenced ska and reggae music. Mento typically features acoustic instruments, such as acoustic guitar, banjo, hand drums, and the rhumba box — a large mbira in the shape of a box that can be sat on while played...
. Reggae quickly became popular around the world, due in large part to the international success of artists like
Bob MarleyRobert Nesta "Bob" Marley was a Jamaican singer-songwriter and musician. He was the lead singer, songwriter and guitarist for the ska, rocksteady and reggae bands The Wailers and Bob Marley & The Wailers...
,
Peter ToshPeter Tosh, born Winston Hubert McIntosh was a reggae musician who was a core member of The Wailers who then went on to have a successful solo career as well as being a trailblazer for the Rastafari movement....
and
Bunny WailerBunny Wailer, also known as Bunny Livingston , is a singer songwriter and percussionist and was an original member of reggae group The Wailers along with Bob Marley and Peter Tosh. He is widely regarded as a musical legend and is considered one of the longtime standard bearers of reggae music...
. Marley was viewed as a
RastafarianThe Rastafari movement is a monotheistic, Abrahamic, new religious movement that accepts Haile Selassie I, the former, and final, Emperor of Ethiopia, as the incarnation of God, called Jah or Jah Rastafari....
messianic figure by some fans, particularly throughout the
CaribbeanThe Caribbean is a region consisting of the Caribbean Sea, its islands , and the surrounding coasts...
, Africa, and among
Native AmericansThe indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas, their descendants, and many ethnic groups who identify with those peoples...
and Australian Aborigines. His lyrics about love, redemption and natural beauty captivated audiences, and he gained headlines for negotiating truces between the two opposing Jamaican political parties (at the One Love Concert), led by
Michael ManleyMichael Norman Manley ON OCC was the fourth Prime Minister of Jamaica . Michael Manley was a democratic socialist....
(
PNPThe People's National Party is a democratic socialist Jamaican political party, founded by Norman Manley in 1938. It is the oldest political party in the Anglophone Caribbean and one of the main two political parties in Jamaica. Out of the two major parties, it is considered more to the left than...
) and
Edward SeagaEdward Philip George Seaga ON PC was Prime Minister of Jamaica and Leader of the Jamaica Labour Party from 1980 to 1989. He served as leader of the opposition from 1974 to 1980 and again from 1989 until January 2005...
(JLP). Reggae music was intricately tied to the expansion of the Rastafarian religion, and its principles of
pacifismPacifism is the opposition to war or violence as a means of settling disputes or gaining advantage. Pacifism covers a spectrum of views ranging from the belief that international disputes can and should be peacefully resolved; to calls for the abolition of the institutions of the military and war;...
and
pan-AfricanismPan-Africanism is a sociopolitical world view, philosophy, and movement which seeks to unify native Africans and members of the African diaspora into a "global African community"...
. Musicians like
Gregory IsaacsGregory Isaacs is a Jamaican reggae musician. Milo Miles, writing in the New York Times, described Isaacs as "the most exquisite vocalist in reggae".-Biography:...
,
The CongosThe Congos are a reggae vocal group from Jamaica active on and off from the mid-1970s until the present day. They are best known for their Heart of the Congos album, recorded with Lee "Scratch" Perry.-History:...
and
Burning SpearWinston Rodney, OD , also known as Burning Spear, is a Grammy Award winning Jamaican roots reggae singer and musician...
— and producers like Lee "Scratch" Perry — solidified the early sound of reggae.
Dub
By 1973,
dub musicDub is an instrumental subgenre of reggae music, that involves revisions of existing songs. The dub sound consists predominantly of instrumental remixes of existing recordings and is achieved by significantly manipulating and reshaping the recordings, usually by removing the vocals from an existing...
had emerged as a distinct reggae genre, and heralded the dawn of the
remixA remix is an alternative version of a song, different from the original version. This name is also used for any alterations of medias other than a song ....
. Developed by record producers such as Lee "Scratch" Perry and
King TubbyKing Tubby was a Jamaican electronics and sound engineer, known primarily for his influence on the development of dub music in the 1960s and 1970s...
, dub featured previously-recorded songs remixed with prominence on the bass. Often the lead instruments and vocals would drop in and out of the mix, sometimes processed heavily with studio effects. King Tubby's advantage came from his intimate knowledge with audio gear, and his ability to build his own sound systems and recording studios that were superior to the competition. He became famous for his remixes of recordings made by others, as well as those he recorded in his own studio. Following in Tubby's footsteps came artists such as
U-RoyU-Roy is a Jamaican musician, also known as The Originator. He is best known as a pioneer of toasting.-Biography:...
and
Big YouthManley Augustus Buchanan , better known as Big Youth , is a Jamaican deejay, mostly known for his work during the 1970s.-Early career:...
, who used Rasta chants in songs. Until the end of the 1970s, Big Youth-inspired dub music with chanted vocals dominated Jamaican popular music. At the very end of the decade,
dancehallDancehall is a genre of Jamaican popular music that developed in the late 1970s, initially as a more sparse and less political and religious variant of reggae than the roots style that had dominated much of the 1970s....
artists like Ranking Joe,
Lone RangerLone Ranger is a Jamaican reggae deejay who recorded nine albums between the late 1970s and mid-1980s.-Biography:...
and
General EchoGeneral Echo aka Ranking Slackness, was one of the first reggae deejays to move away from 'cultural' lyrics towards 'slackness' ....
brought a return to U-Roy's style.
Other 1970s developments
Other popular music forms that arose during the 1970s include: Briton (
Linton Kwesi JohnsonLinton Kwesi Johnson is a British-based dub poet. He became the second living poet, and the only black poet, to be published in the Penguin Classics series...
's
dub poetryDub poetry is a form of performance poetry of West Indian origin, which evolved out of dub music consisting of spoken word over reggae rhythms in Jamaica in the 1970s....
); Sly & Robbie's rockers reggae, which drew on
Augustus PabloHorace Swaby , better known as Augustus Pablo, was a Jamaican roots reggae and dub record producer and keyboardist, active from the 1970s onwards. He was known for his devotion to the spiritual Rastafari movement....
's
melodicaThe melodica, also known as the 'blow-organ' is a free-reed instrument similar to the accordion and harmonica. It has a musical keyboard on top, and is played by blowing air through a mouthpiece that fits into a hole in the side of the instrument. Pressing a key opens a hole, allowing air to flow...
, becoming popular with artists such as
The Mighty DiamondsThe Mighty Diamonds are a Jamaican harmony trio, recording roots reggae with a strong Rastafarian influence. The group, which comprises Donald "Tabby" Shaw, Fitzroy "Bunny" Simpson, and Lloyd "Judge" Ferguson, was formed in 1969 and remains together as of 2008...
and
The GladiatorsThe Gladiators are a Jamaican roots reggae band, most popular during the 1970s in the reggae genre later known as roots reggae. The core was Albert Griffiths , Clinton Fearon and Dallimore Sutherland bass guitar and singer...
;
Joe GibbsJoe Gibbs born Joel A. Gibson was a Jamaican reggae producer.-Biography:Joe Gibbs worked as an electronics engineer in the United States before his career in music started. Gibbs eventually returned to Kingston, Jamaica and opened an electrical repair shop with television repairs and sales as its...
' mellower rockers reggae, including music by
CultureCulture was a Jamaican roots reggae group founded in 1976. Originally they were known as the African Disciples.The members of the trio were Joseph Hill , Albert Walker and Kenneth Dayes ....
and
Dennis BrownDennis Emmanuel Brown was a Jamaican reggae singer. During his prolific career, which began in the late 1960s when he was aged eleven, he recorded more than 75 albums and was one of the major stars of lovers rock, a sub-genre of reggae...
;
Burning SpearWinston Rodney, OD , also known as Burning Spear, is a Grammy Award winning Jamaican roots reggae singer and musician...
's distinctive style, as represented by the albums
Marcus GarveyMarcus Garvey is the third album by Burning Spear, released in 1975. The album is named after Marcus Garvey. A dub version of it was released as Garvey's Ghost-Track listing:#"Marcus Garvey"#"Slavery Days"#"The Invasion"#"Live Good"#"Give Me"...
and
Man in the HillsMan in the Hills is a reggae album by Jamaican musician Burning Spear , released in 1976 on Island Records. Man in the Hills was follow-up to the seminal Marcus Garvey; Man in the Hills is usually considered a worthy follow-up, though less innovative and incendiary...
; and harmonic, spiritually-oriented Rasta music like that of
The AbyssiniansThe Abyssinians are a Jamaican roots reggae group, famous for their close harmonies and promotion of the Rastafari movement in their lyrics.-History:...
,
Black UhuruBlack Uhuru are a Jamaican reggae group formed in 1972, initially as Uhuru . The group has undergone several line-up changes over the years, and had their most successful period in the 1980s, with their album Anthem winning the first ever Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album in 1985.-History:The...
and
Third WorldThird World is a Jamaican reggae band formed in 1973. Their sound is influenced by soul, funk and disco. According to Billboard's Jim Bessman, Third World is considered by some reggae purists to be overly commercial...
. In 1975, Louisa Marks had a hit with "Caught You in a Lie", beginning a trend of British performers making romantic, ballad-oriented reggae called
lovers rockLovers rock is a style of reggae music noted for its romantic sound and content. While love songs had been an important part of reggae since the late 1960s, the style was given a greater focus and a name in London in the mid 1970s.-History:...
.
Reggae and ska had a massive influence on British
punk rockPunk rock is a rock music genre that developed between 1974 and 1976 in the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia. Rooted in garage rock and other forms of what is now known as protopunk music, punk rock bands eschewed the perceived excesses of mainstream 1970s rock...
and
New WaveNew Wave is a genre of rock and pop music that emerged in in the middle to late 1970s alongside punk rock. The term at first generally was synonymous with punk rock before being considered a genre in its own right that incorporated aspects of electronic and experimental music, mod subculture, and...
bands of the 1970s, such as
The ClashThe Clash were an English rock band that formed in 1976 as part of the original wave of British punk rock. Along with punk, they experimented with reggae, ska, dub, funk, rap and rockabilly...
,
Elvis Costello and the AttractionsElvis Costello is an English singer-songwriter. He came to prominence as an early participant in London's pub rock scene in the mid-1970s, and later became associated with the punk rock and New Wave musical genres...
,
The PoliceThe Police were an English rock trio, from London, England, formed originally in 1977. The trio consisted of Gordon Sumner, CBE , widely known by his stage name of Sting , Andy Summers and Stewart Copeland...
,
The SlitsThe Slits are a British punk rock band. The quartet was formed in 1976 by members of the bands The Flowers of Romance and The Castrators. The members were Ari Up and Palmolive , with Viv Albertine and Tessa Pollitt replacing founding members, Kate Korus and Suzy Gutsy...
, and
The RutsThe Ruts were a reggae-influenced British punk rock band, notable for the 1979 Top 10 hit "Babylon's Burning", and an earlier single "In a Rut", which was not a hit but was much played and highly regarded by the UK BBC Radio 1 disc jockey, John Peel....
. Ska revival bands such as
The SpecialsThe Specials are an English 2 Tone ska revival band formed in 1977 in Coventry, England. Their music combined a "danceable ska and rocksteady beat with punk's energy and attitude", and had a "more focused and informed political and social stance" than other ska groups...
,
MadnessMadness are a British pop/ska band from Camden Town, London, that formed in 1976. In 2009, the band have continued to perform with their most recognised lineup of seven members, although their lineup has varied slightly over the years. They were one of the most prominent bands of the late-1970s 2...
and
The SelecterThe Selecter were a 2 Tone ska revival band from Coventry, England, formed in mid 1979.Like many other bands in the ska revival movement, The Selecter featured a racially mixed line-up. Their lyrics featured themes connected to politics and marijuana, set to strong melodies and a danceable beat...
developed the
2 Tone2 Tone is a music genre created in England in the late 1970s by fusing elements of ska, punk rock, rocksteady, reggae and pop...
genre.
Dancehall and ragga
During the 1980s, the most popular music styles in Jamaica were
dancehallDancehall is a genre of Jamaican popular music that developed in the late 1970s, initially as a more sparse and less political and religious variant of reggae than the roots style that had dominated much of the 1970s....
and
raggaRaggamuffin music, usually abbreviated as ragga, is a sub-genre of dancehall music or reggae, in which the instrumentation primarily consists of electronic music...
. Dancehall is essentially speechifying with musical accompaniment, including a basic drum beat (most often played on electric drums). The lyrics moved away from the political and spiritual lyrics popular in the 1970s and concentrate more on less serious issues. Ragga is characterized by the use of computerized beats and sequenced melodic tracks. Ragga is usually said to have been invented with the song "Under Mi
Sleng TengSleng Teng is the name given to the first fully computerised riddim in Jamaican music. The riddim created by the collaboration between King Jammy and Wayne Smith's was entitled "Under Me Sleng Teng". However, in this case Wayne Smith was the one who had found the computerized sound in Noel Davey's...
" by
Wayne SmithWayne Smith is a Jamaican reggae musician.-Biography:His 1985 recording of " Sleng Teng", is generally regarded as the beginning of ragga style reggae. The rhythm was created on a Casio MT-40 and is based on the riff from Eddie Cochran's "Somethin' Else"...
. Ragga barely edged out dancehall as the dominant form of Jamaican music in the 1980s. DJ
Shabba RanksShabba Ranks is a Jamaican dancehall/ragga recording artist....
and vocalist team
Chaka DemusChaka Demus is a well known reggae musician and deejay, best known for a string of hits which enjoyed chart success in the 1990s, in both his native Jamaica and around the world...
and Pliers proved more enduring than the competition, and helped inspire an updated version of the
rude boyRude boy, rudeboy, rudie, rudi or rudy were common terms for juvenile delinquents and criminals in 1960s Jamaica, and have since been used in other contexts...
culture called
raggamuffinRaggamuffin is either* Raggamuffin music; see Ragga; or* an alternative spelling of ragamuffin.* Raggamuffin Music Festival an Australian and New Zealand Reggae Music Festival...
.
Dancehall was sometimes violent in lyrical content, and several rival performers made headlines with their feuds across Jamaica (most notably
Beenie ManAnthony Moses Davis , better known by his stage name Beenie Man, is a Jamaican reggae entertainer and a well established dancehall artist.-Biography:Davis was born in the Waterhouse district of Kingston in 1973...
versus
Bounty KillerBounty Killer is a Jamaican reggae and dancehall deejay. He is the founder of a dancehall collective, known as The Alliance.-Early life and career:...
). Dancehall emerged from pioneering recordings in the late 1970s by
Barrington LevyBarrington Levy is a reggae and dancehall recording artist.-Career:In 1976, Levy formed a band with his cousin, Everton Dacres, called the Mighty Multitude; the pair released "My Black Girl" in 1977...
, with
Roots RadicsThe Roots Radics Band was formed in 1978 by bass player Errol "Flabba" Holt and guitarist Eric "Bingy Bunny" Lamont. They were joined by many great musicians. As a combined force the Roots Radics became a well respected studio and stage band, which dominated the sound in the first half of the 1980s...
backing and Junjo Lawes as producer. The Roots Radics were the pre-eminent backing band for the dancehall style.
YellowmanYellowman is a Jamaican reggae and dancehall deejay, widely known as King Yellowman...
,
Ini KamozeCecil Campbell , better known by his stage name Ini Kamoze is a Jamaican reggae singer. He is best known for his signature song, "Here Comes the Hotstepper", which was released in 1994, and subsequently topped the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart...
,
Charlie ChaplinCharlie Chaplin is a Jamaican dancehall and ragga deejay and singer. It was common for Jamaican deejays of the era to name themselves after film stars or characters. Bennett, however, had been nicknamed after the comedian since his youth. His career began in 1980 when he began working with...
and General Echo helped popularize the style along with producers like
Sugar MinottSugar Minott is a Jamaican reggae singer, producer and sound-system operator.-Early career:...
.
The 1980s saw a rise in reggae music from outside of Jamaica. During this time, reggae particularly influenced African popular music, where Sonny Okusuns (Nigeria), John Chibadura (Zimbabwe),
Lucky DubeLucky Philip Dube was a South African reggae musician. He recorded 22 albums in Zulu, English and Afrikaans in a 25-year period and was South Africa's biggest selling reggae artist...
(South Africa) and
Alpha BlondyAlpha Blondy is an African reggae singer and international recording artist. Born Seydou Koné in Dimbokro, Ivory Coast Alpha Blondy sings mainly in his native language of Dioula, in French and English, and sometimes in Arabic or Hebrew. His lyrics convey strong political attitudes and a sense of...
(Ivory Coast) became stars. The 1980s saw the end of the dub era in Jamaica, although dub has remained a popular and influential style in the UK, and to a lesser extent throughout Europe and the US. Dub in the 1980s and 1990s has merged with
electronic musicElectronic music is music that employs electronic musical instruments and electronic music technology in its production. In general a distinction can be made between sound produced using electromechanical means and that produced using electronic technology. Examples of electromechanical sound...
.
Variations of dancehall continued to be popular into the mid 1990s. Some of the performers of the previous decade converted to Rastafari, and changed their lyrical content. Artists like
Buju BantonBuju Banton is a Jamaican dancehall, ragga, and reggae musician. He has also recorded Pop and Dance songs, as well as songs dealing with political topics. Banton is politically outspoken and influenced by Marcus Garvey .-Background:Buju Banton was born near Kingston, Jamaica in a poor neighborhood...
experienced significant crossover success in foreign markets, while
Beenie ManAnthony Moses Davis , better known by his stage name Beenie Man, is a Jamaican reggae entertainer and a well established dancehall artist.-Biography:Davis was born in the Waterhouse district of Kingston in 1973...
,
Bounty KillerBounty Killer is a Jamaican reggae and dancehall deejay. He is the founder of a dancehall collective, known as The Alliance.-Early life and career:...
and others developed a sizable North American following, due to their frequent guest spots on albums by
gangsta rapGangsta rap is a subgenre of hip hop that reflects the violent lifestyles of some inner-city youths. Gangsta is a non-rhotic pronunciation of the word gangster. The genre was pioneered in the mid 1980s by rappers such as Schooly D and Ice T, and was popularized in the later part of the 1980s by...
pers like
Wu-Tang ClanThe Wu-Tang Clan is a New York City-based hip hop group. Wu-Tang Clan consists of RZA, GZA, Raekwon, U-God, Ghostface Killah, Inspectah Deck, Method Man, Masta Killa, the late Ol' Dirty Bastard, and Cappadonna...
and
Jay-ZShawn Corey Carter , better known by his stage name, Jay-Z is an American hip hop artist and businessman. He is one of the most financially successful hip hop artists and entrepreneurs in America, having a net worth of over $150 million, shipping over 30 million copies of his albums in the United...
. Some
raggaRaggamuffin music, usually abbreviated as ragga, is a sub-genre of dancehall music or reggae, in which the instrumentation primarily consists of electronic music...
musicians, including Beenie Man,
Shabba RanksShabba Ranks is a Jamaican dancehall/ragga recording artist....
and
CapletonCapleton is a reggae and dancehall artist. He is also referred to as King Shango, King David, The Fireman and The Prophet...
, publicly converted to a new lyrical style, in the hope that his new style of lyrics would not offend any one particular social group.
Reggae fusion
Reggae fusion emerged as a popular subgenre in the late 1990s. It is a mixture of reggae or
dancehallDancehall is a genre of Jamaican popular music that developed in the late 1970s, initially as a more sparse and less political and religious variant of reggae than the roots style that had dominated much of the 1970s....
with elements of other genres such as hip hop, R&B, jazz, rock 'n roll or indie rock. It is closely related to
raggaRaggamuffin music, usually abbreviated as ragga, is a sub-genre of dancehall music or reggae, in which the instrumentation primarily consists of electronic music...
music. It originated in
JamaicaJamaica is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width, amounting to 11,100 km
2. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola, the island harboring the nation-states Haiti and the Dominican Republic...
,
North AmericaNorth America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and in the western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific...
and
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains , and the Black Sea to the southeast...
.
Non-Rastafarian Jamaican religious music
The Bongo Nation is a distinct group of Jamaicans possibly descended from the Congo. They are known for
KuminaKumina or Cumina is a cultural form indigenous to Jamaica. It is a religion, music and dance practiced by in large part Jamaicans who reside in the eastern parish on St. Thomas on the island. These people have retained the drumming and dancing of the Bantu-speaking peoples of the Congo. Like the...
, which refers to both a
religionA religion is a system of human thought which usually includes a set of narratives, symbols, beliefs and practices that give meaning to the practitioner's experiences of life through reference to a higher power, deity or deities, or ultimate truth...
and a form of music. Kumina's distinctive drumming style became one of the roots of Rastafarian drumming, itself the source of the distinctive Jamaican rhythm heard in ska, rocksteady and reggae. The modern intertwining of Jamaican religion and music can be traced back to the 1860s, when the Pocomania and Revival Zion churches drew on African traditions, and incorporated music into almost every facet of
worship'Worship' is acts, expressions or a state of religious devotion typically directed to one or more deities.Worship is etymologically derived from Old English words meaning "worth-ship". Giving worth to something...
. Later, this trend spread into
HinduHinduism is the predominant religion of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is often referred to as ', a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", by its adherents. Generic "types" of Hinduism that attempt to accommodate a variety of complex views span folk and Vedic Hinduism to bhakti tradition, as...
communities, resulting in baccra music.
The spread of Rastafari into urban Jamaica in the 1960s transformed the Jamaican music scene, which incorporated
drumThe drum is a member of the percussion group of music instruments, technically classified as a membranophone.. Drums consist of at least one membrane, called a drumhead or drum skin, that is stretched over a shell and struck, either directly with parts of a player's body, or with some sort of...
ming (played at grounation ceremonies) and which has led to today's popular music. Many of the above mentioned music and dance have been stylised by the National Dance Theatre Company of Jamaica led by Prof. Rex Nettleford artistic director (ret, prof and vice chancellor of The University of the West Indies) and Marjorie Whyle Musical Director (Caribbean Musicologist, pianist, drummer, arranger lecturer at the University of the West Indies). Since 1962, this volunteer company of dancers and musicians have had many of these dances in its core repertoire and have performed worldwide to large audiences, including The British Royal family.
Other developments
Other trends included minimalist digital tracks, which began with
Dave KellyDave Kelly is a Jamaican Record Producer. He began his career as an Engineer in the late eighties. After getting into producing at the "Penthouse" label of Donovan Germain, he started his own label "Madhouse" together with business partner Janet Davidson in 1991...
's "Pepper Seed" in 1995, alongside the return of love balladeers like
Beres HammondBeres Hammond is a reggae singer from Jamaica who is known in particular for his romantic lovers rock...
. American, British, and
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains , and the Black Sea to the southeast...
an
electronicElectronic music is music that employs electronic musical instruments and electronic music technology in its production. In general a distinction can be made between sound produced using electromechanical means and that produced using electronic technology. Examples of electromechanical sound...
musicians used reggae-oriented beats to create further hybrid electronic music styles. Dub,
world musicWorld music is the traditional music or folk music of a culture that is created and played by indigenous musicians that is closely related to the music of the regions of their origin.-Terminology:...
, and
electronic musicElectronic music is music that employs electronic musical instruments and electronic music technology in its production. In general a distinction can be made between sound produced using electromechanical means and that produced using electronic technology. Examples of electromechanical sound...
continue to influence music in the 2000s.
JaFolk Mix is a term coined by Jamaican musician Joy Fairclough, to mean the mix of Jamaican Folk Music with any foreign and local styles of music and the evolution of a new sound created by their fusion. This is the latest Jamaican Music stylistic development of the late 20th century and 21st century. Jamaican music continues to influence the world's music. Many efforts at studying and copying Jamaican music has introduced the world to this new form of music as the copied styles are performed with accents linguistically and musically slanted to that of the home nation in which it is being studied, copied and performed.
External links