Encyclopedia
Masculinity comprises culturally of the traits assigned to the male in various contexts. The word
masculine can refer to:
- The property of being biologically male, more precisely expressed in biology as "sex"
- A gender role or behaviour traditionally associated with males
- Grammatical gender, an inflection of nouns, largely derived from gender role association
Masculinity is sometimes used as a synonym for manhood. The antonym of masculinity is
femininity; femininity in men is sometimes called effeminacy.
Masculinity is the measure of performance in a
gender role associated with
male humans. Traits often associated with masculinity have their roots in the genetic predispositions of male humans which are supported, contributed to, celebrated and often exaggerated by cultural and social constructs. Therefore while masculinity can mean different things to different cultures, there are often very common aspects to its definition across cultures. The most obvious example of this is the idea that to act in an effeminate manner reduces a male's masculinity. Sometimes gender scholars will use the phrase "hegemonic masculinity" to distinguish the most dominant form of masculinity from other variants. In the mid-twentieth century United States, for example,
John Wayne might embody one form of masculinity, while
Albert Einstein might be seen as masculine, but not in such a clearly 'hegemonic' fashion.
In some cultures masculinity can be an indicator of social status much as wealth,
race or
social class. In western culture, for example, Greater masculinity usually brings greater social status for males among their peers, and many English words such as
virtue reflect this, implying a clear association with strength. Masculinity is associated more commonly with adult
men rather than younger
boys as a key characteristic of social
persona. The corresponding gender role for females is called
femininity. To assert the presence of
femininity or masculinity in a member of the opposite
gender is to mark them as unusual, often in an undesirable way. In non-human
primates, the corresponding trait is called dominance in both sexes, expressed as relative position within a gender group, where human terms such as "masculinity" are almost never used in general ethology.
Sociology
Since
Emile Durkheim, masculinity has been an interest of
sociologists. Janet Saltzman Chafetz describes seven areas of traditional masculinity in Western culture:
- Physical--virile, athletic, strong, brave. Unconcerned about appearance and aging;
- Functional--breadwinner, provider;
- Sexual--sexually aggressive, experienced. Single status acceptable;
- Emotional--unemotional, stoic;
- Intellectual--logical, intellectual, rational, objective, practical,
- Interpersonal--leader, dominating; disciplinarian; independent, individualistic ;
- Other Personal Characteristics--success-oriented, ambitious; proud, egotistical ; , moral, trustworthy; decisive, competitive, uninhibited, adventurous.
Social scientists Deborah David and Robert Brannon give the following four rules for establishing masculinity:
- No Sissy Stuff: anything that even remotely hints of femininity is prohibited. A real man must avoid any behavior or characteristic associated with women;
- Be a Big Wheel: masculinity is measured by success, power, and the admiration of others. One must possess wealth, fame, and status to be considered manly;
- Be a Sturdy Oak: manliness requires rationality, toughness, and self-reliance. A man must remain calm in any situation, show no emotion, and admit no weakness;
- Give 'em Hell: men must exude an aura of daring and aggression, and must be willing to take risks, to "go for it" even when reason and fear suggest otherwise.
Definitions of masculinity, such as all of the above, are entirely subjective observations of their authors. Observable and traditionally accepted traits of masculinity may differ across time periods and cultures. For example see machismo, which includes negative traits and positive ones including assertiveness or standing up for rights, responsibility/selflessness, general code of ethics, and sincerity and/or respect
Development of masculinity
There is an extensive debate about how children develop gender identities. See Gender identity and
Gender role for a full discussion of the subject.
In many cultures non-standard characteristics of the "other" gender may become a social problem. Among sexually mature individuals, non-standard behaviors may be considered a sign of
homosexuality, while a young female who exhibits masculine behavior is sometimes called a "tom boy". Within
sociology such labeling and conditioning is known as peer pressure, and is a part of
socialization to better match a culture's mores. The corresponding social condemnation of excessive masculinity may be expressed in by terms such as "machismo" or as "testosterone poisoning."
The relative importance of the roles of socialization and genetics in the development of masculinity continues to be debated. While social conditioning obviously plays a role, it can also be observed that certain aspects of the masculine identity exist in almost all human cultures, which points to a partly genetic origin.
The historical development of gender role is addressed by such fields as
behavioral genetics,
evolutionary psychology, human ecology and
sociobiology. All human
cultures seem to encourage the development of gender roles, through
literature,
costume and song. Some examples of this might include the epics of
Homer, the
King Arthur tales in English, the normative commentaries of
Confucius or biographical studies of
Muhammad. More specialized treatments of masculinity may be found in works such as the
Bhagavad Gita or
bushido's
Hagakure.
Pressures associated with masculine gender role
Most men feel pressured to act masculine. These men feel that they have to prevail in situations that require physical strength and fitness. To appear weak, emotional, or sexually inefficient is a major threat to their self-esteem. To be content, these men must feel that they are decisive and self-assured, and rational. Masculine gender role stress may develop if a man feels that he has acted 'unmanly'. Conversely, acting 'manly' among peers will often result in increased social validation or general competitive advantage.
In 1987, Eisler and Skidmore did studies on masculinity and created the idea of 'masculine stress'. They found five mechanisms of masculinity that accompany masculine gender role often result in emotional stress. They include:
a) the emphasis on prevailing in situations requiring fitness and strength
b) being perceived as emotional and thereby feminine
c) the need to feel conquering in regard to sexual matters and work
d) the need to repress tender emotions such as showing emotions restricted according to traditional masculine customs
Coping strategies
Men and women have different ways that they appraise stressful situations and cope with them. Standards of masculinity cannot only create stress in themselves for some men; they can also limit these men's abilities to relieve stress. Some men appraise situations using the schema of what is an acceptable masculine response rather than what is objectively the best response. As a result men often feel limited to a certain range of “approved” responses and coping strategies.
Stoicism and emotional repression
Men and women tend towards different forms of expression, although these tendencies are not rigid and overlap. There is disagreement as to the degree to which these dispositions are genetic or social. Men tend to be regarded as the ones who are supposed to give comfort and strength. If they break down, cry, or seek comfort they may be considered 'less masculine'. Women and other men do not give men an option to express feeling sad, tired, weak, depressed, inadequate, needy, or lonely without sacrificing their masculinity.
Risk-taking
Men, significantly more so than women, tend to drink and drive, not to wear
seatbelts, to be aggressive, to fight, to drive fast, and to drive dangerously. Men are also more likely to be involved in a homicide, to be involved in a
motor vehicle accident and other accidents .
Men are in fact three times more likely to die of accidents than females. Men make up 93% of workplace deaths. While many argue that this is because dangerous job industries are dominated by men, others argue that at least part of the gender disparity is due to masculine risk-taking behavior.
Men generally take more risks with their health than women. All these behaviors are acceptable for men and are to some extent deemed masculine. Men are twice as likely to die from
cancer than women are. Men are more likely not wear
sunscreen, eat unhealthily, and forgo cardiovascular exercise. Men are historically also more likely to smoke .
The reasons for this willingness to take risks are widely debated. There is evidence to show that this is largely due to genetic predispositions of the male sex , though perhaps greatly exaggerated and supported by social constructs and related pressure. Some believe that men, especially young men, are genetically predisposed to be less risk-averse than women because, in terms of a group's reproductive capacity, the loss of a young man is much less risky in terms of evolution than the loss of a young woman, which would seem to present evolutionary pressures towards men being more predisposed to risk and danger . Some also cite how widespread and culture-independent certain aspects of masculine identity are, implying that if masculinity was purely learned, different societies in different times would have completely different ideas about the masculine gender role, which has historically remained relatively consistent.
In addition to taking more risks, men appear to be more capable of managing risk and performing under stress than women.
Independence and invulnerability
Men are significantly less likely to visit their physicians to receive preventive health care examinations. Men make 134.5 million fewer physician visits than American women each year. In fact, men make only 40.8% of all physician visits. A quarter of the men who are 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician. Men should go to annual heart checkups with physicians but many do not, increasing their risk of death from heart disease. In fact, men between the ages of 25 and 65 are four times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease than women. Men are more likely to be diagnosed in a later stage of a terminal illness because of their reluctance to go to the doctor. This may also be due to the fact that men tend to not notice symptoms as quickly as women do. Jerry Kaiser, a health-care consultant believes that, "Men… [are] still basically hunters and warriors… They tend to not pay attention to things that are invisible and internal. If there is no clear external stimulus, there's no response."
Reasons men give for not having annual physicals and not visiting their physician include fear, denial, embarrassment, and a dislike of situations out of their control. These are feelings that result from their ideas of masculinity, specifically independence, control, and invulnerability.
Media encouragement
According to Arran Stibbe , men's health problems and behaviors can be linked to the socialized gender role of men in our culture. In exploring magazines, he found that they promote traditional masculinity and claims that, among other things, men's magazines tend to celebrate “male” activities and behavior such as admiring guns, fast cars, sexually libertine women, and reading or viewing
pornography regularly. In men's magazines, several “ideal” images of men are promoted, and that these images may even entail certain health risks.
Alcohol consumption behavior
Research on beer commercials by Strate and by Wenner show some results relevant to studies of masculinity. In beer commercials, the ideas of masculinity are presented and encouraged. The commercials often focus on situations where a man is overcoming an obstacle in a group. The men will either be working hard or playing hard. For instance the commercial will show men who do physical labor such as construction workers, or farm work, or men who are
cowboys. Beer is shown as a reward for a job well done. Beer is also associated with the end of the day as a transition from work to leisure. Beer commercials that involve playing hard have a central theme of mastery , risk, and adventure. For instance, the men will be outdoors
fishing,
camping, playing sports, or hanging out in bars. There is usually an element of danger as well as a focus on movement and speed. This appeals to and emphasizes the idea that real men overcome danger and enjoy speed . The bar serves as a setting for test of masculinity and serves as a center for male socializing. Beer is also associated with
nature. The idea that beer is natural and pure, not harmful, perhaps even healthy is strongly suggested.
Another example of the depiction of alcohol consumption and bars as central to male socialization can be found in the cartoon
The Simpsons.
Homer Simpson, the patriarch of the family, is often referred to as an alcoholic and spends a great deal of time at
Moe's Tavern. In many episodes, Homer Simpson is portrayed as choosing to spend time at the bar drinking "
Duff beer" over spending time with his wife and children.
Men drink three times as much alcohol as women, often engaging in risky behavior such as
binge drinking. According to a study done by Rorabaugh, college men are among the heaviest drinkers in American society. It is conceptualized that college men are seeking adventure. According to Green,
drinking games are “an important factor in the socialization of new students into heavy use". Drinking is seen as an adventure in itself as well as for the fact that it frees men to experience sex, violence, and other adventurous behaviors. In exchange for taking the risk presented, college men receive acceptance from their peers. Not only is alcohol in itself a risk in these men’s lives, but some college rituals and traditions expect men to mix danger while they have consumed alcohol. In American colleges, young men view their manhood as developing in a moment that is socially dominated by alcohol.
Masculine roles
The following characters and roles are commonly considered in academic papers as popular hyperboles and stereotypes of masculinity.
...
,
Coastguard,
Airman,
CommandoFurther reading
Present situation
- Arrindell, Willem A., Ph.D. “Masculine Gender Role Stress” Psychiatric Times Pg. 31
- Burstin, Fay “What’s Killing Men”. Herald Sun . October 15 2005.
- Canada, Geoffrey “Learning to Fight” Men’s Lives Kimmel, Michael S. and Messner, Michael A. ed. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, London: 2001
- Robert Connell: Masculinities, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995 ISBN 0-7456-1469-8
- Courtenay, Will “Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: a theory of gender and health” Social Science and Medicine, yr: 2000 vol: 50 iss: 10 pg: 1385-1401
- Juergensmeyer, Mark : Why guys throw bombs. About terror and masculinity
- Kaufman, Michael “The Construction of Masculinity and the Triad of Men’s Violence”. Men’s Lives Kimmel, Michael S. and Messner, Michael A. ed. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, London: 2001
- Robinson, L. . Not just boys being boys: Brutal hazings are a product of a culture of masculinity defined by violence, aggression and domination. Ottawa Citizen .
- Stephenson, June . Men are Not Cost Effective: Male Crime in America. ISBN 0-06-095098-6
- Williamson P. “Their own worst enemy” Nursing Times: 91 29 November 95 p 24-7
- Wray Herbert “Survival Skills” U.S. News & World Report Vol. 139 , No. 11; Pg. 63 September 26 2005
History
- Michael Kimmel, Manhood in America, New York [etc.]: The Free Press 1996
- A Question of Manhood: A Reader in U.S. Black Mens History and Masculinity, edited by Earnestine Jenkins and Darlene Clark Hine, Indiana University press vol1: 1999, vol. 2: 2001
- Gary Taylor, Castration: An Abbreviated History of Western Manhood, Routledge 2002
- Klaus Theweleit, Male fantasies, Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press, 1987 and Polity Press, 1987
- Peter N. Stearns, Be a Man!: Males in Modern Society, Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1990
References
- Levine, Martin P. . Gay Macho. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-4694-2.
- Stibbe, Arran. . “Health and the Social Construction of Masculinity in Men’s Health Magazine.” Men and Masculinities; 7 July, pp. 31-51.
- Strate, Lance “Beer Commercials: A Manual on Masculinity” Men’s Lives Kimmel, Michael S. and Messner, Michael A. ed. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, London: 2001
Masculinity comprises culturally of the traits assigned to the male in various contexts. The word
masculine can refer to:
- The property of being biologically male, more precisely expressed in biology as "sex"
Janet Saltzman Chafetz describes seven areas of traditional masculinity in Western culture:
- Physical--virile, athletic, strong, brave. Unconcerned about appearance and aging;
- Functional--breadwinner, provider;
- Sexual--sexually aggressive, experienced. Single status acceptable;
- Emotional--unemotional, stoic;
- Intellectual--logical, intellectual, rational, objective, practical,
- Interpersonal--leader, dominating; disciplinarian; independent, individualistic ;
- Other Personal Characteristics--success-oriented, ambitious; proud, egotistical ; , moral, trustworthy; decisive, competitive, uninhibited, adventurous.
Social scientists Deborah David and Robert Brannon give the following four rules for establishing masculinity:
- No Sissy Stuff: anything that even remotely hints of femininity is prohibited. A real man must avoid any behavior or characteristic associated with women;
- Be a Big Wheel: masculinity is measured by success, power, and the admiration of others. One must possess wealth, fame, and status to be considered manly;
- Be a Sturdy Oak: manliness requires rationality, toughness, and self-reliance. A man must remain calm in any situation, show no emotion, and admit no weakness;
- Give 'em Hell: men must exude an aura of daring and aggression, and must be willing to take risks, to "go for it" even when reason and fear suggest otherwise.
Definitions of masculinity, such as all of the above, are entirely subjective observations of their authors. Observable and traditionally accepted traits of masculinity may differ across time periods and cultures. For example see machismo, which includes negative traits and positive ones including assertiveness or standing up for rights, responsibility/selflessness, general code of ethics, and sincerity and/or respect
External links
- , a magazine on issues of interest to men. Offering advice on dating, secrets of love, celebrity biography, relationships and health, career and business.
- , a magazine on issues of interest to men. Covers fitness, sex, health, guy wisdom, weight loss, nutrition, and style. In the health section you can find information on illnesses and how to fight them, in addition to information about cholesterol, back pain, heart disease, and stress management.
- , dedicated to promoting the health and wellness of men and boys. Their goal is to reduce preventable risks and help men and boys live longer and healthier lives. It has a health assessment program and offers services to help men and their families improve their health.
- articles on health issues, provides articles on health issues and studies that provide statistics and facts. Information on self-help through diet and lifestyle changes as well as information on mental health is highlighted.
- , talks about men and their depression and how to get help.
- , features a 2200+ bibliography of young masculinities.
- , a comprehensive bibliography of writing on men, masculinities, gender, and sexualities, listing over 16,700 works.
- , on men and gender issues. Includes over 180 articles on men, gender, masculinity, and sexuality, and categorised links to 560 websites.
See also
