Encyclopedia
Beowulf is a heroic epic poem. At 3,182 lines, it is notable for its length in comparison to other
Old English poems. It represents about 10% of the extant corpus of
Old English poetry. The poem is untitled in the manuscript, but has been known as
Beowulf since the early
19th century. In the poem,
Beowulf, a hero of a
Germanic tribe from southern
Sweden called the
Geats, travels to
Denmark to help defeat a monster named Grendel. He later returns to
Geatland, where he becomes king, and when he is old he kills a dragon and dies. Although dealing primarily with Scandinavian matters, the work has risen to such prominence that it is sometimes called "
England's national epic".
Background and origins
The events described in the poem take place in the late
5th century and the early
6th century after the
Anglo-Saxons had begun their migration and settlement in England, and before it had ended. The traditions describe a time when the Anglo-Saxons were either newly arrived or in close dynastic and personal contacts with their Germanic kinsmen in Scandinavia and northern Germany. It may not be a coincidence that whereas
Beowulf is the most well-known Anglo-Saxon work left to posterity, the most well-known Anglo-Saxon archaeological find,
Sutton Hoo, also showed close connections with
Scandinavia. It has consequently been suggested that
Beowulf was first composed in the
7th century at Rendlesham in
East Anglia, and that the east Anglian royal dynasty, the Wuffings were descendants of the
Geatish
Wulfings. The poem could consequently have been transmitted in England by people who prided themselves in their Geatish origins.
The poem deals with legends, i.e. it was composed for entertainment and does not separate between real historic events and fictional elements. It mentions a confirmed historic event, the raid by king Hygelac into
Frisia, ca. 516. Moreover, many of the personalities of
Beowulf , clans and some of the events also appear in early Scandinavian sources, particularly in
Ynglinga saga,
Gesta Danorum,
Hrólfr Kraki's saga and in the Latin summary of the lost
Skjöldunga saga. As far as Sweden is concerned, the dating of the events in the poem has been confirmed by archaeological excavations of the
barrows indicated by
Snorri Sturluson and by Swedish tradition as the graves of
Ohthere and his son
Eadgils in
Uppland,
Sweden.
Consequently, many people and events depicted in the epic were probably real. Like the
Finnsburg Fragment and several shorter surviving poems,
Beowulf has consequently been used as a source of information about Scandinavian personalities such as
Eadgils and Hygelac, and about continental Germanic personalities such as Offa, king of the continental
Angles.
Whilst it could be said that Beowulf is the only substantial extant Old English poem that addresses matters heroic rather than Christian, there are nonetheless Christian viewpoints expressed within the poem, and the overall judgement on both Christian and heroic society is ambiguous. Some scholars have suggested that the Christian elements were inserted later, perhaps by the scribe or scribes copying the manuscript.
A turning point in Beowulf scholarship came in 1936 with
J.R.R. Tolkien's article
when, for the first time, the poem and
Anglo-Saxon literature were seriously examined for its literary merits—not just scholarship about the origins of the English language as was popular in the 19th century. Perhaps no other single academic article has been so instrumental in converting a medieval piece of literature from obscurity to prominence.
The Beowulf manuscript
The precise date of the manuscript is debated, but most estimates place it close to 1000. Traditionally the poem's date of composition has been estimated, on linguistic and other grounds, as approximately 650–800. More recently, doubt has been raised about the linguistic criteria for dating, with some scholars suggesting a date as late as the 11th century, near the time of the manuscript's copying. The poem appears in what is today called the
Beowulf manuscript or
Nowell Codex , along with other works. The manuscript is the product of two different
scribes, the second and more accurate scribe taking over at line 1939 of
Beowulf.
The poem is known only from a single manuscript. The spellings in the surviving copy of the poem mix the
West Saxon and Anglian dialects of Old English, though they are predominantly West Saxon, as are other Old English poems copied at the time. The earliest known owner is the 16th century scholar
Laurence Nowell, after whom the manuscript is known, though its official designation is
Cotton Vitellius A.XV due to its inclusion in the catalog of
Robert Bruce Cotton's holdings in the middle of the 17th century. It suffered irreparable damage in the
Cotton Library fire at the ominously-named Ashburnham House in 1731.
Icelandic scholar Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin made the first transcription of the manuscript in 1786 and published it in 1815, working under a historical research commission of the
Danish government. Since that time, the manuscript has suffered additional decay, and the Thorkelin transcripts remain a prized secondary source for Beowulf scholars. Their accuracy has been called into question, however , and the extent to which the manuscript was actually more readable in Thorkelin's time is unclear.
Authorship and Questions
According to the
Norton Anthology of English Literature, most scholars believe that
Beowulf was written by a Christian poet . Grendel and Grendel's Mother are described as descendants of Cain, and share similarities with antagonists in medieval Christian stories. Since the
Beowulf poet was also very knowledgeable about pagan beliefs, the descriptions of Grendel and Grendel's mother, for example, could owe as much to pagan beliefs about trolls as they do to Christian beliefs about demons. In addition, Beowulf's cremation at the end of the poem also refers to a pagan practice. On one view, the problem is resolved by supposing that, even though Beowulf was a pagan, the poem's Christian audience could admire his heroic deeds.
Beowulf may thus be a product of the poet's knowledge of both Christian beliefs and the ancient history of his people. However, this approach may overestimate the historical knowledge and multicultural tolerance of the poem's last redactor. A somewhat more complex view, typical of oral traditional scholars, suggests that in the long history of the poem's transmission, a pre-Christian heroic narrative has been "baptised," perhaps superficially and with references only to those features of Christian tradition consistent with a heroic ethos. In whatever manner the two are combined, the result is a poem that seems to have appeal and to be intelligible outside of a Christian belief system.
Professor Robert F. Yeager notes the role of Christianity poses one of the mysteries surrounding Beowulf: "That the scribes of Cotton Vitellius A.XV were Christian is beyond doubt; and it is equally certain that Beowulf was composed in a Christianized England, since conversion took place in the sixth and seventh centuries. Yet the only Biblical references in Beowulf are to the Old Testament, and Christ is never mentioned. The poem is set in pagan times, and none of the characters is demonstrably Christian. In fact, when we are told what anyone in the poem believes, we learn that they are idol worshipping pagans. Beowulf’s own beliefs are not expressed explicitly. He offers eloquent prayers to a higher power, addressing himself to the “Father Almighty” or the “Wielder of All.” Were those the prayers of a pagan who used phrases the Christians subsequently appropriated? Or, did the poem’s author intend to see Beowulf as a Christian Ur-hero, symbolically refulgent with Christian virtues?"
Beowulf the hero
Beowulf scholar
Tolkien noted that the name
Beowulf almost certainly means
bee-hunter in
Old English. The name
Beowulf could therefore be a kenning for "
bear" due to a bear's love of honey. Bees figure prominently in many mythologies in Europe and the Near East . Jacob Grimm attributes the term "bee-hunter" to a type of woodpecker.
Some scholars suggest that Beowulf could correspond to Bödvar Bjarki, the
battle bear, from Norse sagas. Both left Geatland , arrived in Denmark and slew a beast that terrorized the Danish court. They also both helped the Swedish king
Eadgils defeat his uncle
Áli in the Battle on the Ice.
An alternative theory is championed by author John Grigsby in his 2005 text,
Beowulf & Grendel: The Truth Behind England's Oldest Legend. In this book, Grigsby argues that the word
Beowulf translates as 'Barley wolf' and links this character to ancient warrior cults of Indo-European tradition such as the Ulfhednar of Norse myth who may have gone into battle intoxicated with a sacred narcotic. This narcotic was most likely ergotized barley, a substance found in the stomachs of Iron Age bodies found preserved in peat bogs in Denmark such as Tollund Man. That these preserved bodies appear to have been slain in rites to the goddess Nerthus, mentioned by
Tacitus in his
Germania, has prompted Grigsby to argue that Grendel's lake-dwelling mother may be a late echo of this goddess, and that Beowulf's victory over her represents the ending of her cult in Age of Migration Denmark by
Odin-worshipping Danes.
Themes, characters and story
Themes
The poem as we know it is a retelling of orally transmitted legends for a Christian audience. It is often assumed that the work was written by a Christian monk, on the grounds that they were the only members of Anglo-Saxon society with access to writing materials. However, the example of King Alfred suggests the possibility of lay authorship.
In historical terms the poem's characters would have been
pagans. The poem's narrator, however, places events into a Biblical context, casting Grendel and Grendel's Mother as the kin of
Cain and placing monotheistic sentiments into the mouths of his characters. Although there are no direct references to
Jesus in the text of the work, the book of
Genesis serves as a touchstone for the poem, since Grendel and Grendel's mother are seen as punished by the Curse and mark of Cain . Scholars disagree as to whether Beowulfs main thematic thrust is pagan or Christian in nature. However, it can be debated that since the only calligraphers were priests, it is possible that the story was changed by a Christian who sought to apply a Christian character to his source.
Thus reflecting the above historical context,
Beowulf depicts a
Germanic warrior society, in which the relationship between the leader, or king, and his thanes was of paramount importance. This relationship was defined in terms of provision and service; the thanes defended the interest of the king in return for material provisions: weapons, armor, gold, silver, food, and drinks.
This society was strongly defined in terms of kinship; if a relative was killed it was the duty of surviving relatives to exact revenge upon his killer, either with his own life or with weregild, a reparational payment. In fact, the hero's very existence owes itself to this fact, as his father Ecgþeow was banished for having killed Heaðolaf, a man from the prominent
Wulfing clan. He sought refuge at the court of
Hroðgar who graciously paid the weregild. Ecgðeow did not return home, but became one of the
Geatish king Hreðel's housecarls and married his daughter, by whom he had Beowulf. The duty of avenging killed kinsmen became the undoing of king Hreðel, himself, because when his oldest son Herebeald was killed by his own brother Hæþcyn in a hunting accident, it was a death that could not be avenged. Hreðel died from the sorrow.
Moreover, this is a world governed by fate and destiny. The belief that fate controls him is a central factor in all of Beowulf's actions.
Characters and Objects
- Beowulf - the hero of the Anglo-Saxon poem titled after him.
- Breca - Beowulf’s childhood friend who competed with him in a swimming match
- Brondings - the people of Breca
- Eadgils - a Swedish king also mentioned extensively in the Norse sagas
- Eanmund - a Swedish prince, and the brother of Eadgils
- Ecgþeow - Beowulf's father who joined the Geats after having been banished for killing Heaðolaf.
- Freawaru - the daughter of King Hroðgar and Queen Wealhþeow and wife of Ingeld, King of the Heaðobards
- Grendel - one of three antagonists
- Grendel's mother - one of three antagonists
- Halga - Hroðgar's brother. He is hardly mentioned in Beowulf but he is a very prominent character in Norse tradition.
- Hæþcyn - the son of the Geatish king Hreðel
- Heaðolaf - Wulfing killed by Beowulf's father Ecgþeow.
- Herebeald - the son of the Geatish king Hreðel
- Heardred - the son of Hygelac, king of the Geats, and his queen Hygd
- Heorogar - Hroðgar's brother and predecessor.
- Heorot - the great hall built by king Hroðgar
- Hildeburh - the daughter of the Danish King Hoc and the wife of the Finn, King of the Jutes
- Hreðel - king of the Geats
- Hreðric and Hroðmund, the two sons of Hroðgar.
- Hroðgar - king of Danes and is married to Wealhþeow. Also prominent in Norse tradition.
- Hroðulf - , Hroðgar's nephew, but more prominent in Norse tradition.
- Hrunting - the magical sword given to Beowulf by Unferð
- Hygd - queen of the Geats; the wife of king Hygelac
- Hygelac - king of the Geats; the husband of Hygd
- Modþryð - queen who punishes those who look her directly in the eye; later marries Offa of Angel
- Naegling - the magical sword used by Beowulf to slay the dragon, but his might was too strong and the blade broke in combat. Name probably translates as "Nail" or "Kinsman of the Nail."
- Ohthere - king of the Swedish house of Scylfings, and also mentioned in Norse tradition. The father of Eadgils and Eanmund, and the brother of Onela.
- Onela - king of the Swedish house of Scylfings, and also mentioned in Norse tradition. The brother of Ohthere.
- Scyld - warrior king who founded the ruling house in Denmark
- Scylding - the ruling clan in Denmark, by metonomy also used to refer to the Danish nation as a whole
- Scylfing
- Fjolner [i]/Fjlner
- Sveigder [i]
...
- the ruling clan in
Sweden, by metonomy also used to refer to the Swedish nation as a whole
- Unferð - a thane of the Danish lord Hroðgar
- Wealhþeow - queen of Danes and is married to Hroðgar
- Wiglaf - Beowulfs cousin. A Swedish warrior of the Waegmunding clan who helps Beowulf slay the dragon
- Wulfing - the clan of Heaðolaf and possibly Wealhþeow
- Yrs
...
- A questionable personage borrowed from Norse tradition appearing in some translations and commentaries, as an emendation of a corrupt line where
Hroðgar's sister is mentioned. His sister is, however, named
Signy in Norse tradition , whereas Yrsa was
Halga's daugther and lover with whom he had Hroðulf.
Story
Scholars argue that
Beowulf can be divided according to the three main battles of the poem.
First battle: Grendel
Beowulf begins with the story of King
Hroðgar, who built the great hall Heorot for his people. In it he, his wife
Wealhþeow, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating, until Grendel attacks the hall and kills and devours many of Hroðgar's warriors. Hrothgar and his people, helpless against Grendel's attacks, abandon Heorot.
Beowulf, a young warrior, hears of Hroðgar's troubles and, leaves his homeland to help Hroðgar.
Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. After they fall asleep, Grendel enters the hall and attacks, devouring one of Beowulf's men. Beowulf, feigning sleep, leaps up and grabs Grendel's arm in a wrestling hold, and the two battle until it seems as though the hall might fall down due to their fighting. Beowulf's men draw their swords and rush to his help, but there is a type of magic which aids Grendel and makes it impossible for swords to hurt him. Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body and Grendel runs home to die.
Second battle: Grendel's mother
The next night, after celebrating Grendel's death, Hroðgar and his men sleep in Heorot. Grendel's Mother appears, however and attacks the hall. She kills Hrothgar's most trusted warrior in revenge for Grendel's death.
Hroðgar, Beowulf, and their men track Grendel's Mother to her lair under an eerie lake. Beowulf prepares himself for battle; he is presented with a sword, Hrunting, by a warrior called Unferð. After stipulating a number of conditions to Hroðgar , Beowulf dives into the lake. There, he is swiftly detected and attacked by Grendel's mother. Unable to harm Beowulf through his armour, Grendel's mother drags him to the bottom of the lake. There, in a cavern containing her son's body and the remains of many men that the two have killed, Grendel's mother fights Beowulf.
Grendel's mother at first prevails, after Beowulf, finding that the sword given him by Unferð cannot harm his foe, discards it in a fury. Again, Beowulf is saved from the effects of his opponent's attack by his armour and, grasping a mighty sword from Grendel's mother's armoury , Beowulf beheads her. Travelling further into the lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse; he severs the head, and with it he returns to Heorot, where he is given many gifts by an even more grateful Hroðgar.
Third battle: The dragon
Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people. One day, late in Beowulf's life, a man steals a golden cup from a
dragon's lair at
Earnaness. When the dragon sees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning up everything in sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but only one of the warriors, a brave young man named Wiglaf, stays to help Beowulf, because the rest are too afraid. Beowulf kills the dragon with Wiglaf's help, but Beowulf dies from the wounds he has received. The dragon's treasure is taken from its lair and buried with Beowulf's ashes. And with that the poem ends.
A further note: according to Seamus Heaney's translation Wiglaf says this to the cowardly warriors who fled the battle.
- So it is goodbye to all you know and love
- on your home ground, the open-handedness,
- the giving of war swords. Every one of you
- with freeholds of land, our whole nation,
- will be dispossessed, once-princes from beyond
- get tidings of how you turned and fled
- and disgraced yourselves. A warrior will sooner
- die than live a life of shame.
Language and Verse-form
Beowulf is the longest poem that has come down to us from Old English, one of the languages ancestral to Modern English. It is seen as an encomium, a song of praise for a great king:
Hwæt! We Gardena in geardagum
þeodcyninga þrym gefrunon
hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon.
In modern English:
Lo! We the Spear-Danes, in days of yore,
have heard of the glory of the people's kings
how the noble ones did deeds of valor.
Old English poetry such as Beowulf is very different from modern poetry. It was probably recited, for few people at that time were able to read. Instead of pairs of lines joined by rhyme , Anglo-Saxon poets typically used alliteration - a technique in which the first half of the line is linked to the second half through similarity in initial sound:
Oft Scyld Scefing sceaðena threatum
A line of Old English poetry usually has three words that alliterate. The meter, or rhythm, of the poetry works together with the alliteration: The stress in a line falls on the first syllables of the words that alliterate, as in the line "weo'x under wo'lcnum, weo'rðmyndum þah."
Old English poets also used kennings, poetic ways of saying simple things. For example, a poet might call the sea the "swan-road" or the "whale-road"; a king might be called a "ring-giver." There are many kennings in Beowulf, and the device is typical of much of classic poetry in Old English, which is heavily formulaic. The name Beowulf itself may be a kenning, "bee-wolf," that is, "bear." Kennings may have been traditional metaphors, and may also have allowed for improvisational composition in performance, providing phrasal synonyms that could be substituted in such a way as to complete the sense of a given line while preserving the meter. These kennings work in much the same way as epithets and verbal formulae, as prefabricated diction for modular insertion into the basic structure of the Old English line. For example, in the speech-introducing-lines --
Beowulf maðelode bearn Ecgðeowes
Hrothgar maðelode helm Scyldinga
The poet has a choice of epithets or formulae to use in order to fulfill the alliteration.
Fr. Klaeber's
Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg has been the standard Old English text/glossary used by scholars since 1908. Two recent versions with Old English glossaries include George Jack's 1997,
Beowulf : A Student Edition, and Bruce Mitchell and Fred C. Robinson's 1998,
Beowulf: An Edition with Relevant Shorter Texts.
Form
The poem is in alliterative measure, in which the alliterative unit is the line and the metrical unit is the half-line.
Its poetic vocabulary included sets of metrical compounds that are varied according to alliterative needs. It also makes extensive use of elided metaphors.
The two halves of the poem are distinguished in many ways: youth then age; Denmark, then
Geatland; the hall, then the barrow; public, then intimate; diverse, then focused.
Here is a small sample including the first naming in the poem of Beowulf himself.
After each line is translation to modern English. A freely-available translation of the poem, now out of copyright, is that of Francis Gummere. It can be had at
Project Gutenberg .
| Line | Original | Translation |
| | oretmecgas æfter æþelum frægn: | ...asked the warriors of their lineage: |
| | "Hwanon ferigeað ge fætte scyldas, | "Whence do you carry ornate shields, |
| | græge syrcan ond grimhelmas, | Grey mail-shirts and masked helms, |
| [335] | heresceafta heap? Ic eom Hroðgares | A multitude of spears? I am Hrothgar's |
| | ar ond ombiht. Ne seah ic elþeodige | herald and officer. I have never seen, of foreigners, |
| | þus manige men modiglicran, | So many men, of braver bearing, |
| | Wen ic þæt ge for wlenco, nalles for wræcsiðum, | I know that out of daring, by no means in exile, |
| | ac for higeþrymmum Hroðgar sohton." | But for greatness of heart, you have sought Hrothgar." |
| [340] | Him þa ellenrof andswarode, | To him, thus, bravely, it was answered, |
| | wlanc Wedera leod, word æfter spræc, | By the proud Geatish chief, who these words thereafter spoke, |
| | heard under helme: "We synt Higelaces | Hard under helm: "We are Hygelac's |
| | beodgeneatas; Beowulf is min nama. | Table-companions. Beowulf is my name. |
| | Wille ic asecgan sunu Healfdenes, | I wish to declare to the son of Healfdene |
| [345] | mærum þeodne, min ærende, | To the renowned prince, my mission, |
| | aldre þinum, gif he us geunnan wile | To your lord, if he will grant us |
| | þæt we hine swa godne gretan moton." | that we might be allowed to address him, he who is so good." |
| | Wulfgar maþelode : "Ic þæs wine Deniga, | His war-prowess and wisdom – "I, of him, friend of Danes, |
| | frean Scildinga, frinan wille, | the Scyldings' lord, will ask, |
| | beaga bryttan, swa þu bena eart, | Of the ring bestower, as you request, |
| | þeoden mærne, ymb þinne sið, | Of that renowned prince, concerning your venture, |
| | ond þe þa ondsware ædre gecyðan | And will swiftly provide you the answer |
| [355] | ðe me se goda agifan þenceð." | That the great one sees fit to give me." |
Translations
The first translation, by Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin, was to
Latin, in connection with the first publication of his transcription.
Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig, greatly unsatisfied with this translation, made the first translation into a modern language —
Danish — which was published in 1820. After Grundtvig's travels to England came the first English translation, by J. M. Kemble in 1837.
William Morris & A. J. Wyatt's translation was published in 1895.
Since then there have been numerous translations of the poem in English. Irish poet
Seamus Heaney and E. Talbot Donaldson have both published translations with W.W. Norton of
New York. Heaney's translation is interestingly influenced by Hiberno-English. Other popular translations of the poem include those by Howell D. Chickering, C. L. Wrenn, Fr Klaeber, Frederick Rebsamen, E.T. Donaldson's very literal prose version, and Burton Raffel's verse rendering. An online translation can be found at http://www.lone-star.net/literature/beowulf/
J.R.R. Tolkien believed the translation by J. J. Earle was not accurate, and did not convey the meaning and symbolism of the storyline or the beauty of the prose of the poem. Chauncey Brewster Tinker was much more positive about the translation, however. Tolkien's own translation is set to be published in the near future.
There are also interpretations, if not translations, of Beowulf, including one written by Robert Nye.
Derivative works and contemporary influences
Literature
- Eaters of the Dead: The Beowulf story, in combination with the 10th century Arabic narrative of Ahmad ibn Fadlan, was used as the basis for this Michael Crichton novel.
- Grendel: The Beowulf story is retold from Grendel's point of view in this novel by John Gardner.
- The Heorot series of science-fiction novels, by Steven Barnes, Jerry Pournelle, and Larry Niven, is named after the stronghold of King Hrothgar and partly parallels Beowulf.
- Beowulf exercised an important influence on J.R.R. Tolkien, who wrote the landmark essay while a professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford University. Tolkien also made a translation of the poem, which the Tolkien Society has recently decided to publish. Significantly, the word orc-neas is used to describe Grendel's race. Many parallels can also be drawn between Beowulf and The Hobbit is a novel written by J. R. R. Tolkien [i] in the tradition of the fairy tale [i]. ...
.
Films
- Grendel Grendel Grendel
- : voiced by Joseph Fiennes
- Beowulf is a heroic epic poem [i]. ...
: a science-fiction/fantasy film starring Christopher Lambert, loosely influenced by Beowulf - The 13th Warrior is a 1999 [i] action film [i] based on Michael Crichton [i]'s novel Eaters of the Dead [i] ...
Action movie directed by John McTiernan mixing Beowulf with the travels of Ibn Fadlan. - Blade of the King : Filmed in central Texas. Directed by William Blesch. Starring Dave Winfrey Jr. as BeoWulf.
- Beowulf & Grendel is a 2006 movie adaptation of Beowulf [i], filmed in Iceland [i], directed by Sturla Gunnarsson [i] ...
: Filmed in Iceland, an independent feature starring Gerard Butler and directed by the Icelandic-Canadian Sturla Gunnarsson - : a low-budget feature donating 100% of its sales and promotions to the American Cancer Society
- Beowulf is a heroic epic poem [i]. ...
: a computer-animated feature directed by Robert Zemeckis, using a photorealistic version of the "performance capture" technique Zemeckis pioneered in Polar Express.
Television and Music
- , a rock opera by Victor Davies and Betty Jane Wylie .
- : In the episode Heroes and Demons Ensign Harry Kim runs a holographic version of the Beowulf poem in which he plays the central character. Most of the episode takes place inside this Beowulf .
- Beowulf and Grendel appear in several episodes of , including "The Rheingold". Grendel is the son of the monster Grinhilda. Beowulf searches for Xena in order to stop Grindel and Grinhilda.
- Grendel , opera composed by Elliot Goldenthal and directed by Julie Taymor.
- The Lament for Beowulf , op. 25, by American composer Howard Hanson . Large-scale work for chorus and orchestra. Translation by W. Morris and A. Wyatt.
- Grendel by Marillion is a retelling of John Gardner's novel Grendel.
Games
- Beowulf by Reiner Knizia is a board game based on the poem. Published by Fantasy Flight Games, it is illustrated by famed Lord of the Rings artist John Howe.
- : action adventure game based on the original story, coming for PC and console
- : a MUD role playing fantasy game based on the original story.
Comics
- Speakeasy Comics: In April 2005 this series debuted a Beowulf monthly title featuring the character having survived into the modern era and now working alongside law enforcement in New York to handle superpowered beings.
- The renowned comics author Neil Gaiman has also depicted the tale of Beowulf in one of his comics.
- In 1975 DC Comics published an ongoing series titled Beowulf Dragon Slayer, which was edited by Dennis O'Neil, written by Michael Uslan and primarily illustrated by Ricardo Villamonte. It was a somewhat lighthearted, but no less action/adventure oriented extrapolation of the ancient poem which used many of the characters but led them in more of a 12 Labors of Hercules or Homer's Odyssey type direction. Part of an attempted line of sword and sorcery/fantasy adventure series, it didn't catch on and only lasted 6 issues, and has been mostly forgotten by comics fans.
- Comico and Dark Horse Comics published Matt Wagner's Grendel series of comic books, which tell the story of a suave but monstrous killer called Grendel and his nemesis Argent, who is a wolf-man. Wagner's first Grendel story, "Devil by the Deed", is a modern day retelling of the Beowulf story.
- In August 2006, Antarctic Press released the first issue in a manga version of Beowulf . The setting is a war ravaged future Earth, and Beowulf is an artificially constructed warrior with a limited lifespan.
Artist's Books
- Beowulf Cartoon : Bookwork by Michael J. Weller with introduction by Bill Griffiths. .
Theatre
- Beowulf:: Adapted for live performance in 1984 by the founding members of Theatre in the Ground. This farcical version has been performed across the US and Canada. 2006 marked the show's 22nd consecutive season, performing to well over 200,000 people annually.
References
Old English plus glossary
- Alexander, Michael. Beowulf: A Glossed Text. Second ed. Penguin: London, 2000.
- Jack, George. Beowulf : A Student Edition. Oxford University Press: New York, 1997.
- Klaeber, Fr, ed. Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg. Third ed. Boston: Heath, 1950.
- Mitchell, Bruce, and Fred Robinson, eds. Beowulf: An Edition with Relevant Shorter Texts. Oxford, UK: Malden Ma., 1998.
- Wrenn, C.L., ed. Beowulf with the Finnesburg Fragment. 3rd ed. London: Harrap, 1973.
Modern English translations
- Raffel, Burton. Beowulf. New York: New American Library, 1963.
- Crossley-Holland, Kevin; Mitchell, Bruce. Beowulf: A New Translation. London: Macmillan, 1968.
- Heaney, Seamus. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001.
- --"Introduction" in Crossley-Holland, Kevin Beowulf. London: Folio, 1973.
- Morgan, Edwin. Beowulf. Manchester: Carcanet, 2002 .
- Swanton, Michael . Beowulf . Manchester: University, 1997.
- Tinker, Chauncey Brewster. The translations of Beowulf; a critical bibliography. New York: Holt, 1903. .
Dual-Language Editions
- I. Chickering, Howell D. Beowulf: a dual-language edition.New York: Anchor books ed., 1977,1989 ISBN 0-385-06213-3
- Heaney, Seamus. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001. ISBN 0-393-32097-9
External links
Texts- edited by James Albert Harrison and Robert Sharp
- by Benjamin Slade - full Old English text and new translation, with many other resources
- - by professor Kevin Kiernan
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Translations:
Translations of Beowulf at Project Gutenberg:- by Francis Barton Gummere
- by John Lesslie Hall
- , May 2005. Searchable text with full audio available, from the University of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries.
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Misc.:
