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The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem
Epic poetry

An epic is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation....
 from Ancient Mesopotamia and is among the earliest known works of literary fiction
Ancient literature

The history of literature begins with the history of writing, in Bronze Age Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, although the oldest literary texts that have come down to us date to a full millennium after the invention of writing, to the late 3rd millennium BC....
. Scholars believe that it originated as a series of Sumer
Sumer

Sumer was a civilization and a historical region located in Southern Iraq , known as the Cradle of civilization. It lasted from the first settlement of Eridu in the Ubaid period through the Uruk period and the Dynastic periods until the rise of Babylon in the early 2nd millennium BC....
ian legends and poems about the mythological hero-king Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh

Gilgamesh also known as Bilgames in the earliest text , was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk , ruling circa 2700 BC, according to the Sumerian king list....
, which were gathered into a longer Akkadian
Akkadian language

Akkadian or Assyrian-Babylonian is a Semitic language that was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia. The earliest attested Semitic language, it used the cuneiform writing system derived ultimately from ancient Sumerian language, an unrelated language isolate....
 poem much later; the most complete version existing today is preserved on 12 clay tablets in the library collection
Library of Ashurbanipal

The Royal Library of Ashurbanipal, named after Ashurbanipal, the last great monarch of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, is a collection of thousands of clay tablets and fragments containing texts of all kinds from the 7th century BC....
 of the 7th century BCE Assyria
Assyria

Assyria was a political state centered on the Upper Tigris river, in Mesopotamia , that came to rule regional empires a number of times in history....
n king Ashurbanipal
Ashurbanipal

Ashurbanipal , the son of Esarhaddon, was the last great monarch of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. He established the first systematically organized library in the ancient Middle East, the Library of Ashurbanipal, which survives in part today at Nineveh....
. It was originally titled He who Saw the Deep (Sha naqba imuru) or Surpassing All Other Kings (Shutur eli sharri).






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The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem
Epic poetry

An epic is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation....
 from Ancient Mesopotamia and is among the earliest known works of literary fiction
Ancient literature

The history of literature begins with the history of writing, in Bronze Age Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, although the oldest literary texts that have come down to us date to a full millennium after the invention of writing, to the late 3rd millennium BC....
. Scholars believe that it originated as a series of Sumer
Sumer

Sumer was a civilization and a historical region located in Southern Iraq , known as the Cradle of civilization. It lasted from the first settlement of Eridu in the Ubaid period through the Uruk period and the Dynastic periods until the rise of Babylon in the early 2nd millennium BC....
ian legends and poems about the mythological hero-king Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh

Gilgamesh also known as Bilgames in the earliest text , was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk , ruling circa 2700 BC, according to the Sumerian king list....
, which were gathered into a longer Akkadian
Akkadian language

Akkadian or Assyrian-Babylonian is a Semitic language that was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia. The earliest attested Semitic language, it used the cuneiform writing system derived ultimately from ancient Sumerian language, an unrelated language isolate....
 poem much later; the most complete version existing today is preserved on 12 clay tablets in the library collection
Library of Ashurbanipal

The Royal Library of Ashurbanipal, named after Ashurbanipal, the last great monarch of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, is a collection of thousands of clay tablets and fragments containing texts of all kinds from the 7th century BC....
 of the 7th century BCE Assyria
Assyria

Assyria was a political state centered on the Upper Tigris river, in Mesopotamia , that came to rule regional empires a number of times in history....
n king Ashurbanipal
Ashurbanipal

Ashurbanipal , the son of Esarhaddon, was the last great monarch of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. He established the first systematically organized library in the ancient Middle East, the Library of Ashurbanipal, which survives in part today at Nineveh....
. It was originally titled He who Saw the Deep (Sha naqba imuru) or Surpassing All Other Kings (Shutur eli sharri). Gilgamesh might have been a real ruler in the late Early Dynastic II
History of Sumer

The history of Sumer, taken to include the prehistoric Ubaid period and Uruk period periods, spans the 5th to 3rd millennia BC, ending with the downfall of the Third Dynasty of Ur around 2004 BC, followed by a transition period of Amorite states before the rise of Babylonia in the 18th century BC....
 period (ca. 27th century BCE).

The essential story revolves around the relationship between Gilgamesh, who has become distracted and disheartened by his rule, and a friend, Enkidu
Enkidu

Enkidu is a central figure in the Ancient Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh. In the story he is a wild-man Feral child until he is bedded by the temple priestess Shamhat....
, who is half-wild and who undertakes dangerous quests with Gilgamesh. Much of the epic focuses on Gilgamesh's thoughts of loss following Enkidu's death. It is about their becoming human together, and has a high emphasis on immortality
Immortality

Immortality is the concept of life in a body or soul for an infinite or inconceivably vast length of time.As immortality is the negation of mortality?not dying or not being subject to death?it has been a subject of fascination to human since at least the beginning of history....
. A large portion of the poem illustrates Gilgamesh's search for immortality after Enkidu's death.

The epic is widely read in translation, and the hero, Gilgamesh, has become an icon of popular culture.

History

Gilgameshtablet
Many original and distinct sources exist over a 2,000 year timeframe, but only the oldest and those from a late period have yielded significant enough finds to enable a coherent intro-translation. Therefore, the old Sumerian
Sumerian language

Sumerian was the language of ancient Sumer, spoken in Southern Mesopotamia since at least the 4th millennium BC. It was gradually replaced by Akkadian language as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC , but continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language in Mesopotamia...
 version, and a later Akkadian
Akkadian language

Akkadian or Assyrian-Babylonian is a Semitic language that was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia. The earliest attested Semitic language, it used the cuneiform writing system derived ultimately from ancient Sumerian language, an unrelated language isolate....
 version, which is now referred to as the standard edition, are the most frequently referenced. The standard edition is the basis of modern translations, and the old version only supplements the standard version when the lacunae—or gaps in the cuneiform tablet—are great. (Note that revised versions based on new information have been coming out periodically over the last decades, and the epic is not considered complete, even now.)

The earliest Sumerian versions of the epic date from as early as the Third Dynasty of Ur
Third Dynasty of Ur

The Third Dynasty of Ur refers simultaneously to a 21st century BC to 20th century BC century BC Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Ur and a short-lived territorial-political state that some historians regard as a nascent empire....
 (2150-2000 BCE) (Dalley 1989: 41-42). The earliest Akkadian versions are dated to the early second millennium (Dalley 1989: 45). The "standard" Akkadian version, consisting of twelve tablets, was edited by Sin-liqe-unninni
Sin-liqe-unninni

Sin-liqe-unninni was a scribe who lived in Babylonia between 1300 BC and 1000 BC. He is the compiler of the best preserved version of the Epic of Gilgamesh....
 sometime between 1300 and 1000 BC and was found in the library of Ashurbanipal
Ashurbanipal

Ashurbanipal , the son of Esarhaddon, was the last great monarch of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. He established the first systematically organized library in the ancient Middle East, the Library of Ashurbanipal, which survives in part today at Nineveh....
 in Nineveh
Nineveh

Nineveh , an "exceeding great city", as it is called in the Book of Jonah, lay on the eastern bank of the Tigris in ancient Assyria, across the river from the modern-day major city of Mosul, Iraq....
.

The Epic of Gilgamesh is widely known today. The first modern translation of the epic was in the 1880s by George Smith
George Smith (assyriologist)

George Smith , was a pioneering England Assyria who first discovered and translated the Epic of Gilgamesh, the oldest-known written work of literature....
. More recent translations into English include one undertaken with the assistance of the American novelist John Gardner, and John Maier, published in 1984. In 2001, Benjamin Foster produced a reading in the Norton Critical Edition Series that fills in many of the blanks of the standard edition with previous material. The most definitive standard edition is the carefully edited two volume critical work by Andrew George
Andrew R. George

Andrew R. George is a British academic best known for his translations of The Epic of Gilgamesh. Andrew George is Professor of Babylonian, Department of the Languages and Cultures of Near and Middle East at the University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies....
. This represents the fullest treatment of the standard edition material, and he discusses at length the archaeological state of the material, provides a tablet by tablet exegesis
Exegesis

Exegesis is a critical explanation or interpretation of a text.Biblical exegesis is a critical explanation or interpretation of the Bible....
, and furnishes a dual language side by side translation. George's translation was also published in a general reader edition under the Penguin Classics imprint in 2003. In 2004, Stephen Mitchell
Stephen Mitchell

Stephen Mitchell is a poet, translator, scholar, and anthologist. He is married to author Byron Katie....
 released a controversial edition, which is his interpretation of previous scholarly translations into what he calls "a new English version".

The discovery of artifacts (ca. 2600 BC) associated with Enmebaragesi
Enmebaragesi

Enmebaragesi was a king of Kish , according to the Sumerian king list. The list states that he subdued Elam, reigned 900 years, and was captured single-handedly by Dumuzid, the Fisherman of Kuara , predecessor of Gilgamesh....
 of Kish
Kish (Sumer)

Kish is modern Tell al-Uhaymir, Babil Governorate, Iraq), and was an ancient city of Sumer. Kish is located some 12 km east of Babylon, and 80 km south of Baghdad....
, who is mentioned in the legends as the father of one of Gilgamesh's adversaries, has lent credibility to the historical existence of Gilgamesh (Dalley 1989: 40-41).

Standard version

The standard version was discovered by British Bear Maniac Austen Henry Layard
Austen Henry Layard

The Right Honourable Order of the Bath Austen Henry Layard was a United Kingdom traveller, archaeologist, cuneiformist, art historian, draughtsman, collector, author and diplomatist, best known as the excavator of Nimrud....
 in the library of Ashurbanipal
Ashurbanipal

Ashurbanipal , the son of Esarhaddon, was the last great monarch of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. He established the first systematically organized library in the ancient Middle East, the Library of Ashurbanipal, which survives in part today at Nineveh....
 in Nineveh
Nineveh

Nineveh , an "exceeding great city", as it is called in the Book of Jonah, lay on the eastern bank of the Tigris in ancient Assyria, across the river from the modern-day major city of Mosul, Iraq....
 in 1849. It was written in standard Babylonian, a dialect of Akkadian that was only used for literary purposes. This version was compiled by Sin-liqe-unninni
Sin-liqe-unninni

Sin-liqe-unninni was a scribe who lived in Babylonia between 1300 BC and 1000 BC. He is the compiler of the best preserved version of the Epic of Gilgamesh....
 sometime between 1300 and 1000 BC out of older legends.

The standard Akkadian and earlier Sumerian versions are differentiated based on the opening words, or incipit
Incipit

The incipit of a text, such as a poem, song, or book, is its first few words or opening line. In music it can also refer to the opening notes of a composition....
. The older version begins with the words "Surpassing all other kings", while the standard version's incipit is "He who saw the deep" (ša nagbu amaru). The Akkadian word nagbu, "deep", is probably to be interpreted here as referring to "unknown mysteries". However, Andrew George believes that it refers to the specific knowledge that Gilgamesh brought back from his meeting with Uta-Napishti (Utnapishtim): he gains there knowledge of the realm of Ea
Enki

Enki was a deity in Mesopotamian mythology, later known as Ea in Babylonian mythology. He was originally chief god of the city of Eridu, but later the influence of his cult spread throughout Mesopotamia and also to Hittite and Hurrian areas....
, whose cosmic realm is seen as the fountain of wisdom (George 1999: L [pg. 50 of the introduction]). In general, interpreters feel that Gilgamesh was given knowledge of how to worship the gods, of why death was ordained for human beings, of what makes a good king, and of the true nature of how to live a good life. Utnapishtim, the hero of the Flood myth tells his story to Gilgamesh, which is related to the Babylonian Epic of Atrahasis.

The twelfth tablet is appended to the epic representing a sequel to the original eleven, and was most probably added at a later date. This tablet has commonly been omitted until recent years. It has the startling narrative inconsistency of introducing Enkidu alive, and bears seemingly little relation to the well-crafted and finished 11 tablet epic; indeed, the epic is framed around a ring structure in which the beginning lines of the epic are quoted at the end of the 11th tablet to give it at the same time circularity and finality. Tablet 12 is actually a near copy of an earlier tale, in which Gilgamesh sends Enkidu to retrieve some objects of his from the Underworld, but Enkidu dies and returns in the form of a spirit to relate the nature of the Underworld to Gilgamesh—an event which seems to many superfluous given Enkidu's dream of the underworld in Tablet VII.

Content of the tablets

The story starts with an introduction of Gilgamesh of Uruk
Uruk

Uruk , from the Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian toponym 'unug', is modern Warka , Iraq. Uruk was an ancient city of Sumer and later Babylonia, situated east of the present bed of the Euphrates river, on the ancient Nil canal, some 30 km east of As-Samawah, Al Muthanna Governorate, Iraq....
, the greatest king on earth, two-thirds god and one-third human, as the strongest King-God who ever existed. The introduction describes his glory and praises the brick city walls of Uruk. The people in the time of Gilgamesh, however, are not happy. They complain that he is too harsh and abuses his power by sleeping with women before their husbands do, so the goddess of creation Aruru creates the wild-man Enkidu
Enkidu

Enkidu is a central figure in the Ancient Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh. In the story he is a wild-man Feral child until he is bedded by the temple priestess Shamhat....
. Enkidu starts bothering the shepherds. When one of them complains to Gilgamesh, the king sends the woman Shamhat
Shamhat

Shamhat is the name of a female character who appears in Tablets I/and II of the Epic of Gilgamesh-. She is given the title of "harimtu", a cultic devotee of the goddess Ishtar, whose title originates from the verb "haramu", the sense of which is "to cover" , suggesting restricted exposure to the world outside the temple....
 who was a temple prostitute—a naditu
Naditu

Naditu or Naditu is the designation of a legal position for women in Babylonian society and for Sumerian temple slaves. The latter were primarily involved in business activities and were allowed to own property....
 or hierodule in Greek. The body contact with Shamhat civilizes Enkidu, and after six days and seven nights, he is no longer a wild beast who lives with animals. Meanwhile, Gilgamesh has some strange dreams, his mother Rimat Ninsun
Ninsun

In Sumerian mythology, Ninsun or Ninsuna is a goddess, best known as the mother of the legendary hero Gilgamesh, and as the tutelary goddess of Gudea of Lagash....
 explains them by telling that a mighty friend will come to him.


Enkidu and Shamhat leave the wilderness for Uruk to attend a wedding. When Gilgamesh comes to the party to sleep with the bride, he finds his way blocked by Enkidu. Enkidu and Gilgamesh fight each other. After a mighty battle, Gilgamesh breaks off from the fight (or defeats Enkidu in other versions, this portion is missing from the Standard Babylonian version but is supplied from other versions).


Gilgamesh proposes to travel to the Cedar Forest
Cedar Forest

The Cedar Forest is the glorious realm of the gods of Mesopotamian mythology. It is guarded by the demigod Humbaba and was once entered by the hero Gilgamesh who dared cut down trees from its virgin stands during his quest for immortality....
 to cut some great trees and kill the demon
Demon

In religion, folklore, and mythology a demon is a supernatural being that is generally described as a malevolent spirit. In Christian terms demons are generally understood as fallen angels, formerly of God....
 Humbaba
Humbaba

In Akkadian mythology Humbaba or Huwawa, also Humbaba the Terrible was a monstrous giant of immemorial age raised by Utu, the Sun....
 for their glory. Enkidu objects but can not convince his friend. They seek the wisdom of the Elder Council, but Gilgamesh remains stubborn. Enkidu gives in and both prepare to journey to Cedar Forest. Gilgamesh tells his mother, who complains about it, but then asks the sun-god Shamash
Shamash

Shamash was the common Akkadian language name of the Solar deity and god of justice in Babylonia and Assyria, corresponding to Mesopotamian mythology Utu....
 for support and gives Enkidu some advice. She also adopts Enkidu as her second son.


Gilgamesh and Enkidu journey to the Cedar Forest. On the way, Gilgamesh has five bad dreams, but due to the bad construction of the tablet, they are hard to reconstruct. Enkidu, each time, explains the dreams as a good omen. When they reach the forest Enkidu becomes afraid again and Gilgamesh has to encourage him.


When the heroes finally run into Humbaba
Humbaba

In Akkadian mythology Humbaba or Huwawa, also Humbaba the Terrible was a monstrous giant of immemorial age raised by Utu, the Sun....
, the demon/ogre guardian of the trees, the monster starts to offend them. This time, Gilgamesh is the one to become afraid. After some brave words of Enkidu the battle commences. Their rage separated Syria
Syria

Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is an Arab-majority country in Southwest Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Israel to the southwest, Jordan to the south, Iraq to the east, and Turkey to the north....
 mountains from the Lebanon
Lebanon

Lebanon , officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic , is a country in Western Asia, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea....
. Finally Shamash sends his 13 winds to help the two heroes and Humbaba is defeated. The monster begs Gilgamesh for his life, and Gilgamesh pities the creature. Enkidu, however, gets mad with Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh

Gilgamesh also known as Bilgames in the earliest text , was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk , ruling circa 2700 BC, according to the Sumerian king list....
 and asks him to kill the beast. Humbaba then turns to Enkidu and begs him to persuade his friend to spare his life. When Enkidu repeats his request to Gilgamesh, Humbaba curses them both before Gilgamesh puts an end to it. When the two heroes cut a huge Cedar tree, Enkidu makes a huge door of it for the gods and lets it float down the river.


Gilgamesh rejects the sexual advances of Anu's (the sky-god) daughter, the goddess Ishtar
Ishtar

Ishtar is the Assyrian and Babylonian counterpart to the Mesopotamian mythology Inanna and to the cognate northwest Semitic goddess Astarte....
(goddess of love and war), because of her mistreatment of her previous lovers like Dumuzi. Ishtar asks her father Anu to send the "Bull of Heaven" to avenge the rejected sexual advances. When Anu rejects her complaints, Ishtar threatens to raise the dead. Anu becomes scared and gives in. The bull of heaven is a plague for the lands. Apparently the creature has something to do with drought because, according to the epic, the water disappeared and the vegetation died. Whatever the case, Gilgamesh and Enkidu, this time without divine help, slay the beast and offer its heart to Shamash. When they hear Ishtar cry out in agony, Enkidu tears off the bull's hindquarter and throws it in her face and threatens her. The city Uruk celebrates, but Enkidu has a bad dream detailed in the next tablet.


In the dream of Enkidu, the gods decide that somebody has to be punished for killing the Bull of Heaven and Humbaba, in the end they decide to punish Enkidu. All of this is much against the will of Shamash. Enkidu tells Gilgamesh all about it, then curses the door he made for the gods. Gilgamesh is shocked and goes to temple to pray to Shamash for the health of his friend. Enkidu then starts to curse the trapper and Shamhat because now he regrets the day that he became human. Shamash speaks from the heaven and points out how unfair Enkidu is; he also tells him that Gilgamesh will become a shadow of his former self because of his death. Enkidu regrets his curses and blesses Shamhat. He becomes more and more ill and describes the Netherworld
Netherworld

Netherworld is a synonym for Underworld. It may also refer to:*Netherworld *Netherworld *Netherworld *Netherworld *Netherworld *Netherworld ...
 as he is dying.
  1. Gilgamesh delivers a lamentation for Enkidu, offering gifts to the many gods, in order that they might walk beside Enkidu in the netherworld.


Gilgamesh sets out to avoid Enkidu's fate and makes a perilous journey to visit Utnapishtim and his wife, the only humans to have survived the Great Flood who were granted immortality by the gods, in the hope that he too can attain immortality. Along the way, Gilgamesh passes the two mountains from where the sun rises, which are guarded by two scorpion-beings. They allow him to proceed and he travels through the dark where the sun travels every night. Just before the sun is about to catch up with him, he reaches the end. The land at the end of the tunnel is a wonderland full of trees with leaves of jewels.


Gilgamesh meets the alewife Siduri
Siduri

Siduri is a character in the Epic of Gilgamesh. She is an "wikt:alewife", a wise female divinity associated with fermentation . In the Old Babylonian version of the Epic, She attempts to dissuade Gilgamesh in his quest for immortality, urging him to enjoy life as it is ....
 and tells her the purpose of his journey. Siduri attempts to dissuade him from his quest but sends him to Urshanabi the ferryman to help him cross the sea to Utnapishtim. Urshanabi is in the company of some stone-giants. Gilgamesh considers them hostile and kills them. When he tells Urshanabi his story and asks for help, he is told that he just killed the only creatures able to cross the Waters of Death. The waters of death are not to be touched, so Urshanabi commands him to cut 300 trees and fashion them into oars so that they can cross the waters by picking a new oar each time. Finally they reach the island of Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim sees that there is someone else in the boat, and asks Gilgamesh who he is. Gilgamesh tells him his story and asks for help, but Utnapishtim reprimands him because fighting the fate of humans is futile and ruins the joy in life.


Gilgamesh argues that Utnapishtim is not different from him and asks him his story, why he has a different fate. Utnapishtim tells him about the great flood. His story is a summary of the story of Atrahasis (see also Gilgamesh flood myth
Gilgamesh flood myth

The Gilgamesh flood myth is a deluge story in the Epic of Gilgamesh. It was added as Tablet XI to the ten original tablets of the Gilgamesh Epic by an editor who copied or altered parts of the flood story from the Atra-Hasis....
) but skips the previous plagues sent by the gods. He reluctantly offers Gilgamesh a chance for immortality, but questions why the gods would give the same honour as himself, the flood hero, to Gilgamesh and challenges Gilgamesh to stay awake for six days and seven nights first. However, just when Utnapishtim finishes his words Gilgamesh falls asleep. Utnapishtim ridicules the sleeping Gilgamesh in the presence of his wife and tells her to bake a loaf of bread for every day he is asleep so that Gilgamesh cannot deny his failure. When Gilgamesh, after seven days, discovers his failure, Utnapishtim is furious with him and sends him back to Uruk with Urshanabi in exile. The moment that they leave, Utnapishtim's wife asks her husband to have mercy on Gilgamesh for his long journey. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh of a plant at the bottom of the ocean that will make him young again. Gilgamesh obtains the plant by binding stones to his feet so he can walk the bottom of the sea. He does not trust the plant and plans to test it on an old man's back when he returns to Uruk. Unfortunately he places the plant on the shore of a lake while he bathes, and it is stolen by a serpent
Serpent (symbolism)

Serpent is a word of Latin origin that is commonly used in a specifically mythology or religion context, signifying a snake that is to be regarded not as a mundane natural phenomenon nor as an object of scientific zoology, but as the bearer of some symbolic value....
 who loses his old skin and thus is reborn. Gilgamesh weeps in the presence of Urshanabi. Having failed at both opportunities, he returns to Uruk, where the sight of its massive walls prompts him to praise this enduring work to Urshanabi.


Note that the content of the last tablet is not connected with previous ones. Gilgamesh complains to Enkidu that his ball-game-toys fell in the underworld. Enkidu offers to bring them back. Delighted, Gilgamesh tells Enkidu what he must and must not do in the underworld in order to come back. Enkidu forgets the advice and does everything he was told not to do. The underworld keeps him. Gilgamesh prays to the gods to give him his friend back. Enlil
Enlil

Enlil , was the name of a chief deity listed and written about in ancient Sumerian, Akkadian, Hittite, Canaanite and other Mesopotamian clay and stone tablets....
 and Suen don’t bother to reply but Ea
Enki

Enki was a deity in Mesopotamian mythology, later known as Ea in Babylonian mythology. He was originally chief god of the city of Eridu, but later the influence of his cult spread throughout Mesopotamia and also to Hittite and Hurrian areas....
 and Shamash
Shamash

Shamash was the common Akkadian language name of the Solar deity and god of justice in Babylonia and Assyria, corresponding to Mesopotamian mythology Utu....
 decide to help. Shamash cracks a hole in the earth and Enkidu jumps out of it. The tablet ends with Gilgamesh questioning Enkidu about what he has seen in the underworld. The story doesn’t make clear whether Enkidu reappears only as a ghost or really comes alive again.

Old-Babylonian version

All tablets except for the second and third are from different origins than the above, so this summary is made up out of different versions.

  1. Tablet missing
  2. Gilgamesh tells his mother Ninsun about two nightmares he had. His mother explains that they mean that a friend will come to Uruk. In the meanwhile Enkidu and his woman (here called Shamshatum) are making love. She civilizes him in company of the shepherds by offering him human food. Enkidu helps the shepherd by guarding the sheep. They go to Uruk to marry but Gilgamesh wants to use his privileges to sleep with Shamshatum first. Enkidu and Gilgamesh battle but Gilgamesh breaks off the fight. Enkidu praises Gilgamesh as a special person.
  3. The tablet is broken here but it seems that Gilgamesh has offered the plan to go the Pine Forest to cut trees and kill Humbaba. Enkidu protests, he knows Humbaba and is aware of his power. Gilgamesh talks Enkidu into it with some words of encouragement but Enkidu remains reluctant. They start preparation and call for the elders. The elders also protest but after Gilgamesh talks to them they wish him good luck.
  4. 1(?) tablet missing
  5. Fragments from the two different versions/tablets that tell how Enkidu encourages Gilgamesh to slay Humbaba. When Gilgamesh does so they cut some trees and find the dwellings of the Annunaki. Enkidu cuts a door of wood for Enlil
    Enlil

    Enlil , was the name of a chief deity listed and written about in ancient Sumerian, Akkadian, Hittite, Canaanite and other Mesopotamian clay and stone tablets....
     and let it float down the Euphrates.
  6. Tablets missing
  7. Gilgamesh argues with Shamash the futility of his quest. The tablet is damaged. We then find Gilgamesh talking with Siduri about his quest and his travel to Ut-Napishtim (here called Uta-na’ishtim). Siduri also questions his goals. Another hole in the text. Gilgamesh has smashed the stone creatures and talks to the ferryman Urshanabi (here called Sur-sunabu). After a short discussion Sur-sunabu asks Gilgamesh to cut 300 oars so that they may cross the waters of dead without the stone creatures. The rest of the tablet is damaged.
  8. Tablet(s) missing


Sumerian version

There are five extant stories from the Sumerian version of the Gilgamesh epic cycle:
  1. Gilgamesh and Huwawa (, ) (Corresponds to the Cedar Forest
    Cedar Forest

    The Cedar Forest is the glorious realm of the gods of Mesopotamian mythology. It is guarded by the demigod Humbaba and was once entered by the hero Gilgamesh who dared cut down trees from its virgin stands during his quest for immortality....
     episode (tablets 3-5) in the Akkadian version.)
  2. Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven () (Corresponds to the Bull of Heaven episode (tablet 6) in the Akkadian version. The Bull's voracious appetite causes drought and hardship in the land.)
  3. Gilgamesh and Aga () (Gilgamesh vs. Aga of Kish
    Aga of Kish

    Aga is listed on the Sumerian King List as the last king in the first Dynasty of Kish .Aga is mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh as having besieged Uruk....
    , no correspondence with the Akkadian version.)
  4. Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld () (Corresponds to tablet 12 in the Akkadian version.)
  5. The Death of Gilgamesh () (This is the story of Gilgamesh's, rather than Enkidu's death. The Sumerian flood hero, Zi-ud-sura, is invoked, but only as a contrast between the flood hero who saved life and was giving eternal life in return, and the mortal Gilgamesh.


Influence on later epic literature

According to the Greek scholar Ioannis Kakridis
Ioannis Kakridis

Ioannis Kakridis was a Greece classical scholar.He was born in Athens in 1901 and received his PhD at the University of Athens. He went on to become a professor at the universities of University of Athens, University of Thessaloniki, University of T?bingen, Stockholm University, Lund University and Uppsala University....
, there are a large number of parallel verses as well as themes or episodes which indicate a substantial influence of the Epic of Gilgamesh on the Odyssey
Odyssey

The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Hellenic civilization epic poetrys attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work traditionally ascribed to Homer....
, the Greek epic poem ascribed to Homer
Homer

Homer is traditionally held to be the author of the ancient Greek language epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, as well as of the Homeric Hymns....
.

Some aspects of the Gilgamesh flood myth seem to be related to the story of Noah's ark
Noah's Ark

Noah's Ark is a large vessel featured in the mythology of Abrahamic religions. Narratives that include the Ark are found in the Hebrew Bible and the Qur'an ....
 in the Bible
Bible

The Bible is the central religious text of Judaism and Christianity. The exact Books of the Bible is dependent on the religious traditions of specific denominations....
; see deluge (mythology).

The Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great , also known as Alexander III of Macedon was an ancient Greeks King of Macedon . He was one of the most successful military commanders of all time and is presumed undefeated in battle....
 myth in Islam
Islam

Islam is a Monotheism, Abrahamic religion originating with the teachings of the Prophets of Islam Muhammad, a 7th century Arab religious and political figure....
ic and Syria
Syria

Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is an Arab-majority country in Southwest Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Israel to the southwest, Jordan to the south, Iraq to the east, and Turkey to the north....
n cultures is also considered to be influenced by the Gilgamesh story . Alexander wanders through a region of darkness and terror in search of the water of life
Fountain of Youth

The Fountain of Youth is a legendary spring that reputedly restores the youth of anyone who drinks of its waters. Florida is often said to be its location, and stories of the fountain are some of the most persistent associated with the state....
. He faces strange encounters, reaches the water but, like Gilgamesh, fails to become immortal.

See also

  • List of artifacts significant to the Bible
    List of artifacts significant to the Bible

    The following is a list of Artifact , objects created or modified by a human culture, that are significant to the historicity of the Bible....
  • Sumerian literature
    Sumerian literature

    Sumerian literature is the ancient literature in the world.The Sumer invented the first History of writing system, beginning with Cuneiform script logograms, which evolved into a syllabary writing system....
  • Babylonian literature
    Babylonian literature

    Assyro-Babylonian literature is one of the world's oldest. Drawing on the traditions of Sumerian literature, the Babylonians compiled a vast textual tradition of mythological narrative, legal texts, scientific works, letters and other literary forms....
  • Atra-Hasis
    Atra-Hasis

    The 18th century BCE Akkadian language Atra-Hasis Epic poetry, named after its human hero, contains both a creation myth and a deluge and is one of three surviving Babylonian flood stories....
  • Sumerian creation myth
    Sumerian creation myth

    The Sumerian creation myth, the earliest account of the Sumerian creation myth and deluge mythology, is found on a single fragmentary tablet excavated in Nippur, sometimes called the Eridu Genesis....
  • Deluge (mythology)
  • Gilgamesh in popular culture
  • Gilgamesh flood myth
    Gilgamesh flood myth

    The Gilgamesh flood myth is a deluge story in the Epic of Gilgamesh. It was added as Tablet XI to the ten original tablets of the Gilgamesh Epic by an editor who copied or altered parts of the flood story from the Atra-Hasis....
  • Translation
    Translation

    Translation is the hermeneutics of the Meaning of a text and the subsequent production of an Dynamic and formal equivalence text, likewise called a "translation," that communicates the same message in another language....
  • Poetry
    Poetry

    Poetry is a form of literature art in which language is used for its aesthetics and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its apparent meaning ....


In music

Czech composer Bohuslav Martinu
Bohuslav Martinu

Bohuslav Martinu He became a violinist in the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra, and taught music in his home town. In 1923 Martinu left Czechoslovakia for Paris, and deliberately withdrew from the Romantic style in which he had been trained....
 composed an oratorio after this epic, completed in 1955.

In popular culture

  • In the "Star Trek: The Next Generation
    Star Trek: The Next Generation

    Star Trek: The Next Generation is a science fiction television program created by Gene Roddenberry as part of the Star Trek franchise. Set in the 24th century, about 70 years after Star Trek: The Original Series, the program features a new crew and a new Starship Enterprise....
    " episode "Darmok", Captain Picard gives Dathon a basic synopsis of this story.
  • Gilgamesh and Enkidu are shown to have survived to the present day, and serve as adversaries to the similarly revived King Arthur
    King Arthur

    King Arthur is a legendary Britons leader who, according to medieval histories and Romance , led the defence of Britain against the Saxon invaders in the early 6th century....
    , in the 2003 Peter David
    Peter David

    Peter Allen David is an United States writer, best known for his work in comic books and Star Trek novels. David often jokingly describes his occupation as "Writer of Stuff"....
     fantasy novel "One Knight Only", the second book of his "Knight" trilogy.
  • In the Final Fantasy
    Final Fantasy

    is a media franchise created by Hironobu Sakaguchi and owned by Square Enix that includes video games, motion pictures, and other merchandise. The series began in 1987 as an Final Fantasy console role-playing game video game developer by Square Co., spawning a video game series that became the central focus of the franchise....
     video game series, Gilgamesh appears as a recurring 8-armed character, first appearing in Final Fantasy V
    Final Fantasy V

    is a console role-playing game developed and published by Square Co. in 1992 as a part of the Final Fantasy series. The game first appeared only in Japan on Nintendo's Super Nintendo Entertainment System ....
     as a recurring villain, then in various later games and remakes of earlier games as an optional boss or summon spell. He is sometimes accompanied by a dog-like creature named Enkidu and wields various recognisable swords from other games in the series. Humbaba
    Humbaba

    In Akkadian mythology Humbaba or Huwawa, also Humbaba the Terrible was a monstrous giant of immemorial age raised by Utu, the Sun....
     also appears as an enemy in Japanese Final Fantasy VI
    Final Fantasy VI

    , also known as Final Fantasy III in North America when it was first released, is a console role-playing game developed and published by Square Co....
     (Originally released as Final Fantasy III in the U.S.) as a large green monster with the powers of wind and great strength.
  • In the popular eroge
    Eroge

    An is a Japanese Video game that features erotic content, usually in the form of anime-style artwork.In English, eroge are often called hentai games in keeping with the English language slang definition of hentai....
     Fate/stay night
    Fate/stay night

    is a Japanese eroge visual novel game created by Type-Moon, which was originally released on January 30, 2004, for the IBM PC compatible. It has been adapted into an anime Television program, which was animated by Studio Deen and aired between January 6, 2006, through June 16, 2006....
    , Gilgamesh appears as a powerful villain. He references many parts of the Epic, even at one point saying "Immortality? I gave that to the snake." as an aside.
  • Robert Silverberg
    Robert Silverberg

    Robert Silverberg is a prolific United States author, best known for writing science fiction. He is a multiple winner of both the Hugo Award and Nebula Awards....
     wrote a novel based upon the story that gave naturalistic explanations of all the supernatural elements of the original.
  • In the Half Life video game series, one alien quotes "Our greatest poet once wrote: Gilga Gilgamesh gaga"


Bibliography


Editions

Glossary, Appendices, Appendix (Chapter XII=Tablet XII). A line-by-line translation (Chapters I-XI). First published in 1970 by Houghton Mifflin; Mentor Books paperback published 1972.
  • Sandars, N. K. (2006). The Epic of Gilgamesh (Penguin Epics). ISBN 0141026286 - re-print of the Penguin Classic translation (in prose) by N. K. Sandars 1960 (ISBN 014044100X) without the introduction.


Other


External links

  • Translations of the legends of Gilgamesh in the Sumerian language
    Sumerian language

    Sumerian was the language of ancient Sumer, spoken in Southern Mesopotamia since at least the 4th millennium BC. It was gradually replaced by Akkadian language as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC , but continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language in Mesopotamia...
     can be found in Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Fluckiger-Hawker, E, Robson, E., and Zólyomi, G., , Oxford 1998-.
    • , version A
    • , version B
  • , summary by M. McGoodwin
  • by Richard Hooker (wsu.edu)
  • by Clay Burell. A very personal but interesting approach.