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Empire of China (1915-1916)
Encyclopedia
The Empire of China was a short-lived attempt by statesman and general Yuan Shikai
from late 1915 to early 1916 to reinstate monarchy in China
. The attempt was ultimately a failure, but it set back the Chinese republican
cause by many years and fractured China into a hodgepodge of squabbling warlord factions.
was installed as the second Provisional Great President of the Republic of China
, he took various steps to consolidate his power and remove opposition leaders from office. To secure his own power he collaborated with various European powers as well as Japan
. Around August 1915, he instructed Yang Du (楊度) et al. to canvass support for a return of a monarchy. On 11 December 1915, an assembly unanimously elected him as Emperor. Yuan ceremonially declined, but "relented" and immediately agreed when the National Assembly petitioned again that day. On 12 December, Yuan, supported by his son Yuan Keding
, declared the Empire of China, becoming the Great Emperor of China (中華帝國大皇帝), taking the era name Hongxian (洪憲). However, Yuan did not formally conduct the accession rites; a dress rehearsal was sabotaged by his Korean concubine. Soon after, Yuan started handing out titles of peerage
to his closest relatives and friends, as well as those who he thought he could buy with titles.
The Aisin Gioro
family, then living within the Forbidden City
but as foreign monarchs rather than Chinese ones, "approved" of Yuan's accession, and even proposed a "royal marriage" of Yuan's daughter to Puyi
.
1916 was to be "Hongxian Year 1" (洪憲元年) rather than "Republic Year 5" (民國五年), but Yuan was opposed by not only the revolutionaries, but far more importantly by his subordinate military commanders, who believed that Yuan's assumption of the monarchy would allow him to rule without depending on the support of the military.
Province after province rebelled after his inauguration, starting with Yunnan
, led by Yuan's governor Cai E
and general Tang Jiyao
and Jiangxi, led by governor Li Liejun
(李烈鈞). The revolters formed the National Protection Army (護國軍) and thus began the National Protection War
. This was followed by other provinces declaring independence from the Empire. Yuan's Beiyang generals, whose soldiers had not received pay once from the imperial government, did not put up an aggressive campaign against the National Protection Army and the Beiyang Army
suffered numerous defeats despite being better trained and equipped than the National Protection Army.
Seeing Yuan's weakness and unpopularity, foreign powers withdrew their support (but did not choose sides in the war). The Empire of Japan
first threatened to invade, then committed to overthrowing Yuan Shikai and recognised both sides of the conflict to be "in a state of war" and allowed Japanese citizens to help the Republicans. Faced with universal opposition, Yuan repeatedly delayed the accession rites to appease his foes. Funding for the ceremony was cut on 1 March. Yuan deliberated abandoning the monarchy with Liang Shiyi
on 17 March and abandoned it on 22 March. The "Hongxian" year was abolished on 23 March and the "Republic" calendrical system restored. Yuan reigned a total of 83 days.
After Yuan's death on 5 June Vice President Li Yuanhong
assumed the presidency, and appointed Beiyang general Duan Qirui
as his Premier and restored the National Assembly and the provisional Constitution. However, the central authority of the Beijing government was significantly weakened and the demise of Yuan's Empire plunged China into a period of warlordism
.
Although the name of the country in Chinese
was changed to the "Empire of China" (and "Hongxian" for state matters), Yuan continued to use "Republic of China" as the English name.
Yuan set up the Ritual Regulations Office (禮制館), which issued the new official anthem "China heroically stands in the Universe" (中華雄立宇宙間) on June 1915. Its lyrics were written by Yin Chang (廕昌) and music by Wang Lu (王露). This anthem continued to be used during Yuan's imperial reign.
Yao was a legendary Chinese ruler. The era of Yao and Shun (堯天舜日) is a Four-character idiom
which means times of peace and prosperity.
The national flag was changed from the original 5-stripe flag to one (with the symmetrical cross, pictured above) that emphasised Han (red) administration over the Manchu
, Mongolian
, Uighur
and Tibetan
minorities of the country. However, the flag with a saltire
was the version commonly used.
Yuan Shikai
Yuan Shikai was an important Chinese general and politician famous for his influence during the late Qing Dynasty, his role in the events leading up to the abdication of the last Qing Emperor of China, his autocratic rule as the second President of the Republic of China , and his short-lived...
from late 1915 to early 1916 to reinstate monarchy in China
Emperor of China
The Emperor of China refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning between the founding of Qin Dynasty of China, united by the King of Qin in 221 BCE, and the fall of Yuan Shikai's Empire of China in 1916. When referred to as the Son of Heaven , a title that predates the Qin unification, the...
. The attempt was ultimately a failure, but it set back the Chinese republican
Republic of China (1912–1949)
In 1911, after over two thousand years of imperial rule, a republic was established in China and the monarchy overthrown by a group of revolutionaries. The Qing Dynasty, having just experienced a century of instability, suffered from both internal rebellion and foreign imperialism...
cause by many years and fractured China into a hodgepodge of squabbling warlord factions.
Preparations for formation
After Yuan ShikaiYuan Shikai
Yuan Shikai was an important Chinese general and politician famous for his influence during the late Qing Dynasty, his role in the events leading up to the abdication of the last Qing Emperor of China, his autocratic rule as the second President of the Republic of China , and his short-lived...
was installed as the second Provisional Great President of the Republic of China
President of the Republic of China
The President of the Republic of China is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the Republic of China . The Republic of China was founded on January 1, 1912, to govern all of China...
, he took various steps to consolidate his power and remove opposition leaders from office. To secure his own power he collaborated with various European powers as well as Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
. Around August 1915, he instructed Yang Du (楊度) et al. to canvass support for a return of a monarchy. On 11 December 1915, an assembly unanimously elected him as Emperor. Yuan ceremonially declined, but "relented" and immediately agreed when the National Assembly petitioned again that day. On 12 December, Yuan, supported by his son Yuan Keding
Yuan Keding
Yuán Kèdìng , courtesy name Yuntai was the eldest son of Yuan Shikai. His mother was Yuan's original wife, Yu , and Yuan Kewen was his younger brother....
, declared the Empire of China, becoming the Great Emperor of China (中華帝國大皇帝), taking the era name Hongxian (洪憲). However, Yuan did not formally conduct the accession rites; a dress rehearsal was sabotaged by his Korean concubine. Soon after, Yuan started handing out titles of peerage
Peerage
The Peerage is a legal system of largely hereditary titles in the United Kingdom, which constitute the ranks of British nobility and is part of the British honours system...
to his closest relatives and friends, as well as those who he thought he could buy with titles.
The Aisin Gioro
Aisin Gioro
Aisin Gioro was the family name of the Manchu emperors of the Qing Dynasty. The House of Aisin Gioro ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which established a republican government in its place. The word aisin means gold in the Manchu language, and "gioro" is the name of the place in...
family, then living within the Forbidden City
Forbidden City
The Forbidden City was the Chinese imperial palace from the Ming Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty. It is located in the middle of Beijing, China, and now houses the Palace Museum...
but as foreign monarchs rather than Chinese ones, "approved" of Yuan's accession, and even proposed a "royal marriage" of Yuan's daughter to Puyi
Puyi
Puyi , of the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan, was the last Emperor of China, and the twelfth and final ruler of the Qing Dynasty. He ruled as the Xuantong Emperor from 1908 until his abdication on 12 February 1912. From 1 to 12 July 1917 he was briefly restored to the throne as a nominal emperor by the...
.
Backlash
Province after province rebelled after his inauguration, starting with Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
, led by Yuan's governor Cai E
Cai E
Cai E or Tsai Ao was a Chinese revolutionary leader and warlord. He was born Cai Genyin in Shaoyang, Hunan, and his courtesy name was Songpo...
and general Tang Jiyao
Tang Jiyao
Tang Jiyao was a Chinese general and warlord of Yunnan during the Warlord Era of Republican China. Tang Jiyao was military governor of Yunnan from 1913-1927.-Life:...
and Jiangxi, led by governor Li Liejun
Li Liejun
Li Liejun, 李烈钧, was a Chinese revolutionary leader and general.Li was born in Wuning, Jiangxi, China. He went on to get a higher education and was sent to the Imperial Japanese Army Academy where he joined the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance...
(李烈鈞). The revolters formed the National Protection Army (護國軍) and thus began the National Protection War
National Protection War
The National Protection War , also known as the anti-Monarchy War, was a civil war that took place in China between 1915 and 1916. The cause of this war was Yuan Shikai's proclamation of himself as Emperor. Only three years earlier, the last Chinese dynasty, the Qing Dynasty, had been overthrown...
. This was followed by other provinces declaring independence from the Empire. Yuan's Beiyang generals, whose soldiers had not received pay once from the imperial government, did not put up an aggressive campaign against the National Protection Army and the Beiyang Army
Beiyang Army
The Beiyang Army was a powerful, Western-style Chinese military force created by the Qing Dynasty government in the late 19th century. It was the centerpiece of a general reconstruction of China's military system. The Beiyang Army played a major role in Chinese politics for at least three decades...
suffered numerous defeats despite being better trained and equipped than the National Protection Army.
Seeing Yuan's weakness and unpopularity, foreign powers withdrew their support (but did not choose sides in the war). The Empire of Japan
Empire of Japan
The Empire of Japan is the name of the state of Japan that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of...
first threatened to invade, then committed to overthrowing Yuan Shikai and recognised both sides of the conflict to be "in a state of war" and allowed Japanese citizens to help the Republicans. Faced with universal opposition, Yuan repeatedly delayed the accession rites to appease his foes. Funding for the ceremony was cut on 1 March. Yuan deliberated abandoning the monarchy with Liang Shiyi
Liang Shiyi
Liang Shiyi was premier of China's Beiyang government from 1921 to 1922.-Biography:Liang Shiyi was born in Sanshui, Guangdong in 1869. In the Qing dynasty, he was put in charge of railways, the most profitable ministry of the government. This allowed him to create the influential Communications...
on 17 March and abandoned it on 22 March. The "Hongxian" year was abolished on 23 March and the "Republic" calendrical system restored. Yuan reigned a total of 83 days.
After Yuan's death on 5 June Vice President Li Yuanhong
Li Yuanhong
Li Yuanhong was a Chinese general and political figure during the Qing dynasty and the republican era. He was twice president of the Republic of China.- Early history :...
assumed the presidency, and appointed Beiyang general Duan Qirui
Duan Qirui
Duan Qirui was a Chinese warlord and politician, commander in the Beiyang Army, and the Provisional Chief Executive of Republic of China from November 24, 1924 to April 20, 1926. He was arguably the most powerful man in China from 1916 to 1920.- Early life :Born in Hefei as Duan Qirui , his...
as his Premier and restored the National Assembly and the provisional Constitution. However, the central authority of the Beijing government was significantly weakened and the demise of Yuan's Empire plunged China into a period of warlordism
Warlord era
The Chinese Warlord Era was the period in the history of the Republic of China, from 1916 to 1928, when the country was divided among military cliques, a division that continued until the fall of the Nationalist government in the mainland China regions of Sichuan, Shanxi, Qinghai, Ningxia,...
.
National symbols
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
was changed to the "Empire of China" (and "Hongxian" for state matters), Yuan continued to use "Republic of China" as the English name.
Yuan set up the Ritual Regulations Office (禮制館), which issued the new official anthem "China heroically stands in the Universe" (中華雄立宇宙間) on June 1915. Its lyrics were written by Yin Chang (廕昌) and music by Wang Lu (王露). This anthem continued to be used during Yuan's imperial reign.
| Chinese lyrics | English translation |
|---|---|
China heroically stands in the Universe Universe The Universe is commonly defined as the totality of everything that exists, including all matter and energy, the planets, stars, galaxies, and the contents of intergalactic space. Definitions and usage vary and similar terms include the cosmos, the world and nature... , Extends to the Eight Corners, The glorious descendants from Kunlun Peak Kunlun Mountains The Kunlun Mountains are one of the longest mountain chains in Asia, extending more than 3,000 km. In the broadest sense, it forms the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau south of the Tarim Basin and the Gansu Corridor and continues east south of the Wei River to end at the North China Plain.The... . The rivers turn greatly, the mountains continuous. Five nationalities Five Races Under One Union Five races under one union was one of the major principles upon which the Republic of China was originally founded in 1911 at the time of the Xinhai Revolution.-Description:... open up the era of Yao Yao (ruler) Yao , was a legendary Chinese ruler, one of the Three Sovereigns and the Five Emperors. His ancestral name （姓）is Yi Qi （伊祁） or Qi（祁）,clan name （氏）is Taotang , given name is Fangxun , as the second son to Emperor Ku and Qingdu... , For millions of myriads of years. |
Yao was a legendary Chinese ruler. The era of Yao and Shun (堯天舜日) is a Four-character idiom
Four-character idiom
Chengyu are a type of traditional Chinese idiomatic expressions, most of which consist of four characters. Chengyu were widely used in Classical Chinese and are still common in vernacular Chinese writing and in the spoken language today...
which means times of peace and prosperity.
The national flag was changed from the original 5-stripe flag to one (with the symmetrical cross, pictured above) that emphasised Han (red) administration over the Manchu
Manchu
The Manchu people or Man are an ethnic minority of China who originated in Manchuria . During their rise in the 17th century, with the help of the Ming dynasty rebels , they came to power in China and founded the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which...
, Mongolian
Mongols
Mongols ) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia...
, Uighur
Uyghur people
The Uyghur are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China...
and Tibetan
Tibetan people
The Tibetan people are an ethnic group that is native to Tibet, which is mostly in the People's Republic of China. They number 5.4 million and are the 10th largest ethnic group in the country. Significant Tibetan minorities also live in India, Nepal, and Bhutan...
minorities of the country. However, the flag with a saltire
Saltire
A saltire, or Saint Andrew's Cross, is a heraldic symbol in the form of a diagonal cross or letter ex . Saint Andrew is said to have been martyred on such a cross....
was the version commonly used.
Dukes of the First Rank (一等公 Yī děng gōng)
- Long Jiguang (龍濟光)
- Zhang XunZhang Xun (Republic of China)Zhang Xun was a Qing-loyalist general who attempted to restore the abdicated emperor Puyi in 1917. He supported Yuan Shikai during his time as president....
- Feng GuozhangFeng GuozhangFéng Guózhāng, was a key Beiyang Army general and politician in early republican China. He held the office of Vice-President and then President of the Republic of China...
(馮國璋) - Jiang Guiti (姜桂題)
- Duan ZhiguiDuan ZhiguiDuan Zhigui was a Chinese general. Born in Hefei, Anhui, Duan gained the post of Heilongjiang governor in the late Qing dynasty and between 1912-13 he was governor of Chahar, and the military governor of Hubei between 1914–15, as well as Military and Civil governor of Fengtian in 1915-16.A...
- Ni SichongNi SichongNi Sichong was a Chinese general. He was one of the handful of Beiyang generals who along with Zhang Xun supported Yuan Shikai's Empire of China during the National Protection War. He was later part of the Anhui clique until resigning in 1920 due to the disastrous defeat in the Zhili-Anhui War....
- Liu GuanxiongLiu GuanxiongLiu Guanxiong was a Chinese Admiral who was Navy Minister of China, from 1912-1916 and 1917-1919. When he was young he entered the Navy College of Fuzhou and was sent abroad to Britain...
Marquesses of the First Rank (一等侯 Yī děng hóu)
- Tang Xiangming (湯薌銘)
- Li Chun (李純)
- Zhu Rui (朱瑞)
- Lu RongtingLu RongtingLu Rongting was born in Wuming, Guangxi, China. Originating as a common bandit, Lu became a military commander in Guangxi in the Qing dynasty and suppressed the revolutionary uprising at Zhennan Pass on the Sino-Vietnam border in Pingxiang, Guangxi led by Sun Yat-sen and Huang Xing.However, when...
- Zhao Ti (趙倜)
- Chen YiChen Yi (Kuomintang)Chen Yi and later Gongqia , sobriquet Tuisu ; 1883 – June 18, 1950) was the Chief Executive and Garrison Commander of Taiwan after it was surrendered by Japan to the Republic of China, which acted on behalf of the Allied Powers, in 1945...
- Tang JiyaoTang JiyaoTang Jiyao was a Chinese general and warlord of Yunnan during the Warlord Era of Republican China. Tang Jiyao was military governor of Yunnan from 1913-1927.-Life:...
- Yan XishanYan XishanYan Xishan, was a Chinese warlord who served in the government of the Republic of China. Yan effectively controlled the province of Shanxi from the 1911 Xinhai Revolution to the 1949 Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War...
- Wang Zhanyuan (王占元)
Counts of the First Rank (一等伯 Yī děng bó)
- Zhang Xiluan (張錫鑾)
- Zhu Jiabao (朱家寶)
- Zhang Mingqi (張鳴岐)
- Tian Wenlie (田文烈)
- Jin YunpengJin YunpengJin Yunpeng was a Chinese General and politician of the Warlord Era of the Republic of China. He served as both Minister of War and then Premier of China several times....
- Yang ZengxinYang ZengxinYang Zengxin , born in Mengzi, Honghe, Yunnan in 1859, was the ruler of Xinjiang after the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 until his assassination in 1928.-Life:...
(楊增新) - Lu Jianzhang (陸建章)
- Meng Enyuan (孟恩遠)
- Qu Yinguang (屈映光)
- Qi Yaolin (齊耀琳)
- Cao KunCao Kun|-...
- Yang Shande (楊善德)
Viscounts of the First Rank (一等子 Yī děng zǐ)
- Zhu Qinglan (朱慶瀾)
- Zhang Guangjian (張廣建)
- Li Houji (李厚基)
- Liu Xianshi (劉顯世)
Barons of the First Rank (一等男 Yī děng nán)
- Xu Shiying (許世英)
- Qi Yang (戚揚)
- Ren Kecheng (任可澄)
- Wang YitangWang YitangWang Yitang was a politician and military personnel in the Qing Dynasty and Republic of China. He belonged to Anhui clique and formed the Anfu Club...
(王揖唐) - He Zonglian (何宗蓮)
- Zhang Huaizhi (張懷芝)
- Long Jinuang (龍覲光)
- Chen BingkunChen BingkunChen Bingkun, , was born in 1868 in Liujiang, Guangxi, China. A general in the late Qing Period, he was commander of the 1st Division of the Guangxi Provincial Army. As a supporter of the Old Guangxi Clique he became the military governor of Guangxi from 1916 to 1917 and civil governor of Guangxi...
- Lu Yongxiang (盧永祥)
- Lü Diaoyuan (呂調元)
- Jin Yong (金永)
- Cai Rukai (蔡儒楷)
- Duan Shuyun (段書雲)
- Long Jianzhang (龍建章)
- Shen Jinjian (沈金鑑)
- Pan Juying (潘矩楹)
See also
- Warlord eraWarlord eraThe Chinese Warlord Era was the period in the history of the Republic of China, from 1916 to 1928, when the country was divided among military cliques, a division that continued until the fall of the Nationalist government in the mainland China regions of Sichuan, Shanxi, Qinghai, Ningxia,...
- History of the Republic of ChinaHistory of the Republic of ChinaThe History of the Republic of China begins after the Qing Dynasty in 1912, when the formation of the Republic of China put an end to over two thousand years of Imperial rule. The Qing Dynasty, also known as the Manchu Dynasty, ruled from 1644 to 1912...
- Self-proclaimed monarchySelf-proclaimed monarchyA self-proclaimed monarchy is a monarchy that is proclaimed into existence, often by an individual, rather than occurring as part of a longstanding tradition...
- Military of the Republic of ChinaMilitary of the Republic of ChinaThe Republic of China Armed Forces encompass the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Military Police Force of the Republic of China . It is a military establishment, which accounted for 16.8% of the central budget in the fiscal year of 2003...