Canadian Units of the War of 1812
Encyclopedia
When the United States
and the United Kingdom
went to war against each other in 1812, the major land theatres of war were Upper Canada
(broadly the southern portion of the present day province of Ontario
), Michigan Territory
, Lower Canada
(roughly the southern part of present day Quebec
) and the Maritime Provinces of Nova Scotia
, New Brunswick
, Prince Edward Island
and Cape Breton
(colony between 1784 and 1820).
Each of the separate British administrations formed regular and fencible units, and both full-time and part-time militia units, many of which played a major part in the fighting over the two and a half years of the war.
Many of its personnel took part in actions in which the peoples to whom they were attached participated. They were supposed to wear full dress in action, to prevent their being mistaken for Americans by excited warriors (or being taken for "blue-eyed Indians", renegades and rogue fur traders, by American soldiers). Indian Department officers were indeed often of mixed Native and European ancestry. Some claimed to speak little or no English.
The most well known victory won by Natives fighting directly under British command was the Battle of Beaver Dams
in 1813.
In 1812, the efficiency of the Provincial Marine was described as low, not least because its senior officer was over eighty years old. Nevertheless, the Americans initially had nothing to match it, and it played a major part in the victories of General Isaac Brock
. It was expanded during the war, and its officers and sailors played valiant parts in the Battle of Lake Erie
and the Battle of Plattsburgh
.
. When not serving aboard ships, the regiment was split up into garrisons and detached companies throughout Upper Canada.
A detachment of ninety men from the regiment, together with thirty officers and men from the Royal Artillery, opened a trail (using old trapper and fur trader routes) from York, the provincial capital of Upper Canada, to the Nottawasaga River
during the early month of 1814. The detachment subsequently took part in the Battle of Mackinac Island
and the Engagement on Lake Huron
.
The unit was disbanded in 1816. As a "Royal" unit, it had blue facings to its red coats.
in Upper Canada in 1814, they did not see action. Disbanded in 1816. The unit had red uniforms with yellow facings.
in 1810. Nevertheless they served in North America only. They made an epic winter march from Fredericton to Kingston
in early 1813. Detachments from the regiment fought at the Battle of Sackett's Harbor
and in the various campaigns on the Niagara peninsula. This unit was trained in light infantry tactics with the intention of being converted to light infantry, and like the light infantry they used bugles instead of drums to pass commands on the battlefield. There were many skilled axe-men and boatmen in the regiment. Their pre-war training also emphasized winter manoeuvers and amphibious operations. Disbanded in 1817. The unit's uniforms had buff facings.
Another unit, also known as the New Brunswick Fencibles, was formed in 1813 to garrison various posts in the Maritime Provinces, and disbanded in 1816.
in 1803. The Scottish recruits feared that they were about to be "crimped" for service in India or other unhealthy posts, and mutinied. Eventually, the unit was recruited from the French-speaking peoples of Lower Canada. The light company fought at the Battle of Chateauguay
and the grenadier company at the Battle of Lacolle Mills (1814)
. A small detachment fought at the Battle of Crysler's Farm
and some of the battalion companies served as marines with the squadron on Lake Champlain
, in several raids in 1813. The unit was disbanded in 1816. Its uniforms had yellow facings.
in 1812, recruited from settlements of discharged Scottish soldiers (and some evicted Scottish highlanders) in Glengarry district. Originally intended to wear highlander uniforms (kilts, etc.), they wore the dark green uniform with black facings of the Rifle Brigade instead, although they were armed with muskets rather than rifles.
Companies and detachments fought in several actions in Upper Canada in 1813, and the whole unit fought at the Battle of Lundy's Lane
. The unit specialized in British light infantry tactics and thus was well-trained in duties such as skirmishing and concealed sentry duty.
The unit was disbanded in 1816. The modern descendant is The Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
. A modern reenactment
unit is based in Fort Erie
Ontario, on the opposite side of the river from Buffalo, New York
.
in 1813. They served in the west, including at the Siege of Prairie du Chien. Disbanded in 1815. The unit supposedly had a uniform of red coats with black facings, but given the distance from regular supply sources and the hard conditions in which it served, it is unlikely that they ever presented a uniform appearance.
Particularly in Upper Canada, ordinary Militia contingents could not be kept in the field for long, especially around harvest time or the planting season when many militia would want to return to work on their farms. This was one reason for the formation of some of the full-time units.
had a slightly anomalous position, in that they were supposedly militia and subject to the militia laws and ordinances, but were listed as a regular unit during the war. They were formed from volunteers from the militia by Lieutenant-Colonel Charles de Salaberry
in 1812. The Voltigeurs were trained to a high standard and fought in several actions including the Battle of Chateauguay
. The unit had a grey uniform (rifle green for officers), with black facings and equipment. Though their unit contained French-speaking Canadians for the majority, their orders were given in English.
, engaging in running firefights with the Americans during the latter's advance to the mill.
in late 1813 when an American attack was threatened, but disbanded immediately the crisis was passed.
When the Select Embodied Militia units were first formed, they were forced by a shortage of official pattern uniforms to adopt a variety of dress. By late 1813 at the latest, all battalions had been issued red uniforms.
The flank companies of the first to fourth battalions were detached to form (with detached light companies of British regular battalions) two ad hoc light infantry battalions during much of 1813. Part at least of the 1st Light Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel George MacDonnell
, which included the light company of the Canadian Fencibles and the light companies of the 2nd and 3rd battalions, fought at the Battle of Chateauguay
. The main body of the 2nd Battalion of the Select Embodied Militia also fought at the Chateauguay. The Light Battalions were broken up late in 1813 or in early 1814.
After the fifth battalion attracted unfavourable reports in 1814 (mainly because of the absence without leave of several of its officers), it was reorganised and reformed as a light infantry unit, the Canadian Chasseurs. It appears that several of the flank companies which had already seen much service with the Light Battalions were consolidated into the Chasseurs, while the existing personnel of the fifth battalion were dispersed among the other battalions. The Chasseurs wore substantially the same uniform as the Voltigeurs and were brigaded with them in the campaign in 1814 which ended with the Battle of Plattsburgh
. (This unit should not be confused with the Independent Companies of Foreigners, which were raised from among French prisoners of war
and served in Chesapeake Bay in 1813, being responsible for several acts of looting and rape, and were given the title "Canadian Chasseurs" by Major General Sidney Beckwith
without authorisation.)
Except for the 6th battalion, which garrisoned the citadel of Quebec city, detachments of all the Select Embodied Militia units saw action in the Montreal or Lake Champlain
sectors.
. It participated in the Battle of Crysler's Farm
.
from among the boatmen of the North West Fur Company, to move military supplies west from Quebec and Montreal. The Corps numbered about 400, and was involved in several skirmishes with American raiders during the winter of 1812-1813. In 1813, responsibility for transport was transferred to the Commissariat
, and the Corps was disbanded and reformed as the Provincial Commissariat Voyageurs.
During the war, members of this corps took part in actions on the Saint Lawrence River
, and journeyed far up the Ottawa River
to reach Lake Huron
. They had no recognised uniform and wore practical clothing as the season required. They also determinedly resisted any attempt to make them conform to any standard of parade ground drill.
So vital was transportation that in 1814, when large numbers of British troops were sent to Canada, Sir George Prevost suggested converting all his Select Embodied Militia to boatmen and voyageurs. This plan met with disapproval from every Canadian officer.
and other actions on the Niagara peninsula.
.
The unit was always used as a body of skirmishing light infantry, and late in 1814, Lieutenant General Gordon Drummond
proposed to give the battalion the same uniform as the Glengarry Light Infantry.
, the Battle of Lundy's Lane
and in several actions on the Niagara peninsula.
There is little authenticated documentation as to the clothing and equipment carried by the Rangers. It is known that the rangers were issued a "bucket cap" (probably a cut down infantry shako
without the brass plate or hackle
), grey woollen trousers and a green woollen tunic, and a black leather bayonet belt and cartridge box. This equipment was issued only once; after that, they were told to re-supply themselves from the enemy. In summer, they would wear white cotton instead of woollen trousers.
It is not known with which model musket they were issued, although some scholars have suggested that they would have been captured American Springfield Model 1795 Musket
(British forces under Isaac Brock
captured over 1200 Muskets and over 200 Rifles at Detroit
) while some others contend they may have used trade muskets instead. The Rangers found that the standard infantry bayonet was too cumbersome for bush fighting and often used hatchets (tomahawks) instead.
The Rangers were recruited locally from Essex County and enrolled into the militia, but not permitted to quit the British service at their leisure as sedentary Militia could.
Fort Malden National Historic Site (Canada) has in recent years employed summer students for the re-created unit at the Park and regional re-enactments. There is also a Modern Re-enacting unit that recreates the Rangers; they are based out of Amherstburg, Ontario and work in conjunction with Fort Malden
.
.
. Served on the Niagara peninsula. The Provincial Dragoons would later be seen as an ancestral unit of the 2nd/10th Dragoons
, which currently exists today as 10th Field Battery, 56th Field Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery in St. Catharines, Ontario
.
and played a major part in the Battle of Queenston Heights
. Two more such detachments were subsequently formed at Kingston.
. All its other ranks were negroes, many of whom had formed Captain Runchey's Company of Coloured Men
(a local militia unit) at the Battle of Queenston Heights
.
Many militia had their own hunting weapons, and during the war, large numbers of British muskets were imported and issued to the militia.
In theory, 54,000 men were available for service with the militia. Each parish provided a militia company. These were organized for administrative purposes into "divisions", equivalent to regiments though of very variable size. These in turn were administered by the Districts of Montreal, Trois-Rivières and Quebec (although the Eastern Townships were largely independent of the Montreal district command).
Except in one or two units raised in the cities of Quebec and Montreal, militiamen and junior officers generally wore serviceable homespun clothing, perhaps with a gorget for officers. Field officers sometimes wore a variety of quasi-military uniforms.
Two companies from Beauharnois
were heavily engaged at the Battle of Chateauguay
.
The Upper Canadian militia were organised into Regiments, based on the "ridings" of each County, such as the 1st and 2nd Essex Militia based out of Essex County, Ontario. Normally in Upper Canada, militia units would meet once a year to receive minor military training. They would wear their own clothing and many armed themselves with their own weapons. At the instigation of Major General Isaac Brock
, commanding in Upper Canada, each regiment formed two "flank companies", consisting of one captain, two subalterns, two sergeants, one drummer and thirty-five men, who were prepared to train six times per month. They were not paid, but were exempt from Jury duty or arrest in any civil case.
Early in the war, many officials feared disaffection among the population of Upper Canada, many of whom were recent immigrants from the United States. In the event, Brock did much to rally public morale by his victory at Detroit.
.
In several battles in 1813, British regulars were forced to retreat and leave the local militia either to disband (as at the Battle of Fort George
) or make the best terms they could with the Americans (as at the Battle of York
). These defeats did little to improve relations between the Canadians and certain British officers. Nevertheless, militia from Lincoln County and other districts along the Niagara River continued to turn out for duty for the remainder of the war.
In 1814, up to 500 members of the local (Lincoln) and York sedentary militia took part in the Battle of Lundy's Lane
. Two years of warfare had not improved their military prowess. After some confused firing, most were sent away after their ammunition was redistributed among the regulars. One man was killed and twenty-one injured.
), but could stop small scale nuisance raids. Volunteer units from the militia, styling themselves for example the "Loyal Essex Volunteers", provided useful intelligence throughout the later period of the war. The Loyal Kent Volunteers took part in the Battle of Longwoods
.
. (Some of the Leeds militia sported captured American Rifle Regiment uniforms for the remainder of the war.)
Late in 1813, the Americans under James Wilkinson
descended the Saint Lawrence to attack Montreal. Militia from Dundas harassed the American boats. 500 militia from Stormont and Glengarry were defeated at Hoople's Creek by 1500 Americans under Jacob Brown
, but Wilkinson abandoned the campaign shortly afterwards.
Other than this episode, the militia along the Saint Lawrence were little troubled during the remainder of the war.
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
and the United Kingdom
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when what is now the Republic of Ireland formed a part of it....
went to war against each other in 1812, the major land theatres of war were Upper Canada
Upper Canada
The Province of Upper Canada was a political division in British Canada established in 1791 by the British Empire to govern the central third of the lands in British North America and to accommodate Loyalist refugees from the United States of America after the American Revolution...
(broadly the southern portion of the present day province of Ontario
Ontario
Ontario is a province of Canada, located in east-central Canada. It is Canada's most populous province and second largest in total area. It is home to the nation's most populous city, Toronto, and the nation's capital, Ottawa....
), Michigan Territory
Michigan Territory
The Territory of Michigan was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from June 30, 1805, until January 26, 1837, when the final extent of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Michigan...
, Lower Canada
Lower Canada
The Province of Lower Canada was a British colony on the lower Saint Lawrence River and the shores of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence...
(roughly the southern part of present day Quebec
Quebec
Quebec or is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....
) and the Maritime Provinces of Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the most populous province in Atlantic Canada. The name of the province is Latin for "New Scotland," but "Nova Scotia" is the recognized, English-language name of the province. The provincial capital is Halifax. Nova Scotia is the...
, New Brunswick
New Brunswick
New Brunswick is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the only province in the federation that is constitutionally bilingual . The provincial capital is Fredericton and Saint John is the most populous city. Greater Moncton is the largest Census Metropolitan Area...
, Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island is a Canadian province consisting of an island of the same name, as well as other islands. The maritime province is the smallest in the nation in both land area and population...
and Cape Breton
Cape Breton Island
Cape Breton Island is an island on the Atlantic coast of North America. It likely corresponds to the word Breton, the French demonym for Brittany....
(colony between 1784 and 1820).
Each of the separate British administrations formed regular and fencible units, and both full-time and part-time militia units, many of which played a major part in the fighting over the two and a half years of the war.
Regulars and fencibles
The fencible units were raised on the same terms as regular troops, but liable for service only in North America.Quasi-military units
Two militarized bodies were in existence before any of the Canadian land units that participated in the war were raised.The Indian Department
This consisted of 100 officers, whose purpose was to act as agents, envoys or interpreters to the various Native tribes and nations (nowadays referred to in Canada as First Nations).Many of its personnel took part in actions in which the peoples to whom they were attached participated. They were supposed to wear full dress in action, to prevent their being mistaken for Americans by excited warriors (or being taken for "blue-eyed Indians", renegades and rogue fur traders, by American soldiers). Indian Department officers were indeed often of mixed Native and European ancestry. Some claimed to speak little or no English.
The most well known victory won by Natives fighting directly under British command was the Battle of Beaver Dams
Battle of Beaver Dams
The Battle of Beaver Dams took place on 24 June 1813, during the War of 1812. An American column marched from Fort George and attempted to surprise a British outpost at Beaver Dams, billeting themselves overnight in the village of Queenston, Ontario...
in 1813.
The Provincial Marine
This had been responsible since the late 18th century for military transport and police duties on the Great Lakes. When war broke out, they possessed:- Lake OntarioLake OntarioLake Ontario is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. It is bounded on the north and southwest by the Canadian province of Ontario, and on the south by the American state of New York. Ontario, Canada's most populous province, was named for the lake. In the Wyandot language, ontarío means...
- Royal George, ship, 510 tons, 22 guns
- Prince Regent, ship, tonnage unknown, 16 guns
- Earl of Moira, brig, 262 tons, 14 guns
- Duke of Gloucester, brig, tonnage unknown, 10 guns
- Seneca, schooner, 216 tons, 8 guns (commandeered trading vessel)
- Simcoe, schooner, 187 tons, 8 guns (commandeered trading vessel)
- Lake ErieLake ErieLake Erie is the fourth largest lake of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the tenth largest globally. It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time. It is bounded on the north by the...
- Queen Charlotte, ship, 400 tons, 17 guns
- Lady Prevost, schooner, 230 tons, 13 guns (under construction, joined a few weeks after the outbreak of war)
- Hunter, brig, 180 tons, 10 guns
In 1812, the efficiency of the Provincial Marine was described as low, not least because its senior officer was over eighty years old. Nevertheless, the Americans initially had nothing to match it, and it played a major part in the victories of General Isaac Brock
Isaac Brock
Major-General Sir Isaac Brock KB was a British Army officer and administrator. Brock was assigned to Canada in 1802. Despite facing desertions and near-mutinies, he commanded his regiment in Upper Canada successfully for many years...
. It was expanded during the war, and its officers and sailors played valiant parts in the Battle of Lake Erie
Battle of Lake Erie
The Battle of Lake Erie, sometimes called the Battle of Put-in-Bay, was fought on 10 September 1813, in Lake Erie off the coast of Ohio during the War of 1812. Nine vessels of the United States Navy defeated and captured six vessels of Great Britain's Royal Navy...
and the Battle of Plattsburgh
Battle of Plattsburgh
The Battle of Plattsburgh, also known as the Battle of Lake Champlain, ended the final invasion of the northern states during the War of 1812...
.
The Royal Newfoundland Fencibles
Although units had been raised in Newfoundland as early as 1795, the regiment which fought in the War of 1812 was officially formed in 1803. Its authorised establishment was 1,000, but it numbered 556 when the war broke out. Many of the regiment's soldiers were expert boatmen, and five companies were sent to Upper Canada in 1812 to serve as marines on the Great Lakes. They fought as such throughout the war, suffering heavy casualties at the Battle of Lake ErieBattle of Lake Erie
The Battle of Lake Erie, sometimes called the Battle of Put-in-Bay, was fought on 10 September 1813, in Lake Erie off the coast of Ohio during the War of 1812. Nine vessels of the United States Navy defeated and captured six vessels of Great Britain's Royal Navy...
. When not serving aboard ships, the regiment was split up into garrisons and detached companies throughout Upper Canada.
A detachment of ninety men from the regiment, together with thirty officers and men from the Royal Artillery, opened a trail (using old trapper and fur trader routes) from York, the provincial capital of Upper Canada, to the Nottawasaga River
Nottawasaga River
The Nottawasaga River is a river in southern Ontario, Canada. Its headwaters are located on the Niagara Escarpment and Oak Ridges Moraine. It flows through the Minesing Swamp, recognized as a wetland of international significance , and empties into Nottawasaga Bay, an inlet of Georgian Bay, at...
during the early month of 1814. The detachment subsequently took part in the Battle of Mackinac Island
Battle of Mackinac Island
The Battle of Mackinac Island was a British victory in the War of 1812. Before the war, Fort Mackinac had been an important American trading post in the straits between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron...
and the Engagement on Lake Huron
Engagement on Lake Huron
The series of minor Engagements on Lake Huron left the British in control of the lake and thus of the Old Northwest for the latter stages of the War of 1812.-Background:...
.
The unit was disbanded in 1816. As a "Royal" unit, it had blue facings to its red coats.
The Nova Scotia Fencibles
Raised in 1803. Although posted to KingstonKingston, Ontario
Kingston, Ontario is a Canadian city located in Eastern Ontario where the St. Lawrence River flows out of Lake Ontario. Originally a First Nations settlement called "Katarowki," , growing European exploration in the 17th Century made it an important trading post...
in Upper Canada in 1814, they did not see action. Disbanded in 1816. The unit had red uniforms with yellow facings.
The New Brunswick Fencibles
This regiment also was raised in 1803. Although established as Fencibles, the regiment volunteered for general service, and became the 104th Regiment of Foot (New Brunswick Regiment) in the British ArmyBritish Army
The British Army is the land warfare branch of Her Majesty's Armed Forces in the United Kingdom. It came into being with the unification of the Kingdom of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. The new British Army incorporated Regiments that had already existed in England...
in 1810. Nevertheless they served in North America only. They made an epic winter march from Fredericton to Kingston
Kingston, Ontario
Kingston, Ontario is a Canadian city located in Eastern Ontario where the St. Lawrence River flows out of Lake Ontario. Originally a First Nations settlement called "Katarowki," , growing European exploration in the 17th Century made it an important trading post...
in early 1813. Detachments from the regiment fought at the Battle of Sackett's Harbor
Battle of Sackett's Harbor
The Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor or simply the Battle of Sacket's Harbor, took place on 29 May 1813, during the War of 1812. A British force was transported across Lake Ontario and attempted to capture the town, which was the principal dockyard and base for the American naval squadron on the lake...
and in the various campaigns on the Niagara peninsula. This unit was trained in light infantry tactics with the intention of being converted to light infantry, and like the light infantry they used bugles instead of drums to pass commands on the battlefield. There were many skilled axe-men and boatmen in the regiment. Their pre-war training also emphasized winter manoeuvers and amphibious operations. Disbanded in 1817. The unit's uniforms had buff facings.
Another unit, also known as the New Brunswick Fencibles, was formed in 1813 to garrison various posts in the Maritime Provinces, and disbanded in 1816.
The Canadian Fencibles
First recruited in ScotlandScotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
in 1803. The Scottish recruits feared that they were about to be "crimped" for service in India or other unhealthy posts, and mutinied. Eventually, the unit was recruited from the French-speaking peoples of Lower Canada. The light company fought at the Battle of Chateauguay
Battle of Chateauguay
The Battle of the Chateauguay was a battle of the War of 1812. On 26 October 1813, a force consisting of about 1,630 French Canadian regulars and militia and Mohawk warriors under Charles de Salaberry repulsed an American force of about 4,000 attempting to invade Canada.The Chateauguay was one of...
and the grenadier company at the Battle of Lacolle Mills (1814)
Battle of Lacolle Mills (1814)
The Second Battle of Lacolle Mills was fought on 30 March 1814 during the War of 1812. The small garrison of a British outpost position, aided by reinforcements, fought off a large American attack.-Background:After the St...
. A small detachment fought at the Battle of Crysler's Farm
Battle of Crysler's Farm
The Battle of Crysler's Farm, also known as the Battle of Crysler's Field, was fought on 11 November 1813, during the Anglo-American War of 1812. A British and Canadian force won a victory over an American force which greatly outnumbered them...
and some of the battalion companies served as marines with the squadron on Lake Champlain
Lake Champlain
Lake Champlain is a natural, freshwater lake in North America, located mainly within the borders of the United States but partially situated across the Canada—United States border in the Canadian province of Quebec.The New York portion of the Champlain Valley includes the eastern portions of...
, in several raids in 1813. The unit was disbanded in 1816. Its uniforms had yellow facings.
The Glengarry Light Infantry
Formed by order of Lieutenant General Sir George PrevostGeorge Prevost
Sir George Prévost, 1st Baronet was a British soldier and colonial administrator. Born in Hackensack, New Jersey, the eldest son of Swiss French Augustine Prévost, he joined the British Army as a youth and became a captain in 1784. Prévost served in the West Indies during the French Revolutionary...
in 1812, recruited from settlements of discharged Scottish soldiers (and some evicted Scottish highlanders) in Glengarry district. Originally intended to wear highlander uniforms (kilts, etc.), they wore the dark green uniform with black facings of the Rifle Brigade instead, although they were armed with muskets rather than rifles.
Companies and detachments fought in several actions in Upper Canada in 1813, and the whole unit fought at the Battle of Lundy's Lane
Battle of Lundy's Lane
The Battle of Lundy's Lane was a battle of the Anglo-American War of 1812, which took place on 25 July 1814, in present-day Niagara Falls, Ontario...
. The unit specialized in British light infantry tactics and thus was well-trained in duties such as skirmishing and concealed sentry duty.
The unit was disbanded in 1816. The modern descendant is The Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
The Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Forces.They have served in the War of 1812, the Great War and World War II....
. A modern reenactment
Modern reenactment
Modern reenactment is historical reenactment of events of the modern period, most commonly events from the 18th century to the present.The period starts with events such as the Seven Years' War, the Napoleonic Wars, and the peak of the Royal Navy's power....
unit is based in Fort Erie
Fort Erie
Fort Erie was the first British fort to be constructed as part of a network developed after the Seven Years' War was concluded by the Treaty of Paris at which time all of New France had been ceded to Great Britain...
Ontario, on the opposite side of the river from Buffalo, New York
Buffalo, New York
Buffalo is the second most populous city in the state of New York, after New York City. Located in Western New York on the eastern shores of Lake Erie and at the head of the Niagara River across from Fort Erie, Ontario, Buffalo is the seat of Erie County and the principal city of the...
.
The Michigan Fencibles
A small unit of 45 men raised at Fort MackinacFort Mackinac
Fort Mackinac is a former American military outpost garrisoned from the late 18th century to the late 19th century near Michilimackinac, Michigan, on Mackinac Island...
in 1813. They served in the west, including at the Siege of Prairie du Chien. Disbanded in 1815. The unit supposedly had a uniform of red coats with black facings, but given the distance from regular supply sources and the hard conditions in which it served, it is unlikely that they ever presented a uniform appearance.
Full-time Militia
Various full-time units were formed from members of the militia. Although usually intended for garrison duty only, several units saw action. All such Militia units were disbanded very soon after the war ended, and their men returned to their former occupations.Particularly in Upper Canada, ordinary Militia contingents could not be kept in the field for long, especially around harvest time or the planting season when many militia would want to return to work on their farms. This was one reason for the formation of some of the full-time units.
The Canadian Voltigeurs
The Canadian VoltigeursCanadian Voltigeurs
The Canadian Voltigeurs were a light infantry unit, raised in Lower Canada in 1812, that fought in the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States.-Formation:...
had a slightly anomalous position, in that they were supposedly militia and subject to the militia laws and ordinances, but were listed as a regular unit during the war. They were formed from volunteers from the militia by Lieutenant-Colonel Charles de Salaberry
Charles de Salaberry
Lieutenant Colonel Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry was a French-Canadian of the seigneurial class who served as an officer of the British army in Lower Canada and won distinction for repelling the American advance on Montreal during the War of 1812.-Early years:Born at the manor house of...
in 1812. The Voltigeurs were trained to a high standard and fought in several actions including the Battle of Chateauguay
Battle of Chateauguay
The Battle of the Chateauguay was a battle of the War of 1812. On 26 October 1813, a force consisting of about 1,630 French Canadian regulars and militia and Mohawk warriors under Charles de Salaberry repulsed an American force of about 4,000 attempting to invade Canada.The Chateauguay was one of...
. The unit had a grey uniform (rifle green for officers), with black facings and equipment. Though their unit contained French-speaking Canadians for the majority, their orders were given in English.
The Frontier Light Infantry
A small unit, two companies strong, which were listed as the ninth and tenth companies of the Voltigeurs, but which were administered separately. Most of its men were English-speaking volunteers from the Eastern townships, unlike the French-speaking main body of the Voltigeurs. They operated alongside a group of Mohawk warriors at LacolleBattle of Lacolle Mills (1814)
The Second Battle of Lacolle Mills was fought on 30 March 1814 during the War of 1812. The small garrison of a British outpost position, aided by reinforcements, fought off a large American attack.-Background:After the St...
, engaging in running firefights with the Americans during the latter's advance to the mill.
Select Embodied Militia
Formed partly from volunteers, and partly from conscripted men chosen by lot, who served for one year only. (Late in the war, there was some trouble when Prevost refused to exempt men who had already served a year, from the ballot.) Four battalions were initially formed early in 1812, followed by a fifth after war was declared, and a sixth in 1813. The seventh and eighth battalions of Sedentary Embodied Militia were formed in MontrealMontreal
Montreal is a city in Canada. It is the largest city in the province of Quebec, the second-largest city in Canada and the seventh largest in North America...
in late 1813 when an American attack was threatened, but disbanded immediately the crisis was passed.
When the Select Embodied Militia units were first formed, they were forced by a shortage of official pattern uniforms to adopt a variety of dress. By late 1813 at the latest, all battalions had been issued red uniforms.
The flank companies of the first to fourth battalions were detached to form (with detached light companies of British regular battalions) two ad hoc light infantry battalions during much of 1813. Part at least of the 1st Light Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel George MacDonnell
George MacDonnell
George Richard John MacDonnell , commonly known as Red George, was an officer in the British Army, who played a conspicuous part in the War of 1812....
, which included the light company of the Canadian Fencibles and the light companies of the 2nd and 3rd battalions, fought at the Battle of Chateauguay
Battle of Chateauguay
The Battle of the Chateauguay was a battle of the War of 1812. On 26 October 1813, a force consisting of about 1,630 French Canadian regulars and militia and Mohawk warriors under Charles de Salaberry repulsed an American force of about 4,000 attempting to invade Canada.The Chateauguay was one of...
. The main body of the 2nd Battalion of the Select Embodied Militia also fought at the Chateauguay. The Light Battalions were broken up late in 1813 or in early 1814.
After the fifth battalion attracted unfavourable reports in 1814 (mainly because of the absence without leave of several of its officers), it was reorganised and reformed as a light infantry unit, the Canadian Chasseurs. It appears that several of the flank companies which had already seen much service with the Light Battalions were consolidated into the Chasseurs, while the existing personnel of the fifth battalion were dispersed among the other battalions. The Chasseurs wore substantially the same uniform as the Voltigeurs and were brigaded with them in the campaign in 1814 which ended with the Battle of Plattsburgh
Battle of Plattsburgh
The Battle of Plattsburgh, also known as the Battle of Lake Champlain, ended the final invasion of the northern states during the War of 1812...
. (This unit should not be confused with the Independent Companies of Foreigners, which were raised from among French prisoners of war
Prisoner of war
A prisoner of war or enemy prisoner of war is a person, whether civilian or combatant, who is held in custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict...
and served in Chesapeake Bay in 1813, being responsible for several acts of looting and rape, and were given the title "Canadian Chasseurs" by Major General Sidney Beckwith
Thomas Sydney Beckwith
Sir Thomas Sydney Beckwith, KCB was an officer of the British army who served as quartermaster general of the British forces in Canada during the War of 1812, and a commander-in-chief at Mumbai during the British Raj...
without authorisation.)
Except for the 6th battalion, which garrisoned the citadel of Quebec city, detachments of all the Select Embodied Militia units saw action in the Montreal or Lake Champlain
Lake Champlain
Lake Champlain is a natural, freshwater lake in North America, located mainly within the borders of the United States but partially situated across the Canada—United States border in the Canadian province of Quebec.The New York portion of the Champlain Valley includes the eastern portions of...
sectors.
The Quebec Volunteers
A small (65 men) volunteer unit, which may have been merged into the 6th Select Embodied Militia battalion.The Canadian Light Dragoons
A horsed unit, also known as Coleman's Troop after its commander. Saw much action in Upper Canada, though mainly as picquets and despatch riders rather than cavalry.The Royal Militia Artillery
A small detachment (1 officer, 22 men) who volunteered for full-time service with units of the Royal ArtilleryRoyal Artillery
The Royal Regiment of Artillery, commonly referred to as the Royal Artillery , is the artillery arm of the British Army. Despite its name, it comprises a number of regiments.-History:...
. It participated in the Battle of Crysler's Farm
Battle of Crysler's Farm
The Battle of Crysler's Farm, also known as the Battle of Crysler's Field, was fought on 11 November 1813, during the Anglo-American War of 1812. A British and Canadian force won a victory over an American force which greatly outnumbered them...
.
The Corps of Provincial Royal Artillery Drivers
Volunteers who served as drivers for units of the Royal Artillery. Its personnel may also have been paid for providing their own draught animals.The Corps of Canadian Voyageurs
Originally raised by William McKayWilliam McKay
William McKay was a noted trader and traveler in Upper Canada, who subsequently served as a military officer during the War of 1812....
from among the boatmen of the North West Fur Company, to move military supplies west from Quebec and Montreal. The Corps numbered about 400, and was involved in several skirmishes with American raiders during the winter of 1812-1813. In 1813, responsibility for transport was transferred to the Commissariat
Commissariat
A commissariat is the department of an army charged with the provision of supplies, both food and forage, for the troops. The supply of military stores such as ammunition is not included in the duties of a commissariat. In almost every army the duties of transport and supply are performed by the...
, and the Corps was disbanded and reformed as the Provincial Commissariat Voyageurs.
During the war, members of this corps took part in actions on the Saint Lawrence River
Saint Lawrence River
The Saint Lawrence is a large river flowing approximately from southwest to northeast in the middle latitudes of North America, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean. It is the primary drainage conveyor of the Great Lakes Basin...
, and journeyed far up the Ottawa River
Ottawa River
The Ottawa River is a river in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec. For most of its length, it now defines the border between these two provinces.-Geography:...
to reach Lake Huron
Lake Huron
Lake Huron is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. Hydrologically, it comprises the larger portion of Lake Michigan-Huron. It is bounded on the east by the Canadian province of Ontario and on the west by the state of Michigan in the United States...
. They had no recognised uniform and wore practical clothing as the season required. They also determinedly resisted any attempt to make them conform to any standard of parade ground drill.
So vital was transportation that in 1814, when large numbers of British troops were sent to Canada, Sir George Prevost suggested converting all his Select Embodied Militia to boatmen and voyageurs. This plan met with disapproval from every Canadian officer.
Upper Canada
Most militia units in Upper Canada formed flank companies, who served on a more regular or full-time basis than the ordinary members of the militia, and were sometimes termed Volunteers. They drilled every weekend, as opposed to the bulk of the militia who were required to turn out for training only twice a year in peace time. Such flank companies took part in the Battle of Queenston HeightsBattle of Queenston Heights
The Battle of Queenston Heights was the first major battle in the War of 1812 and resulted in a British victory. It took place on 13 October 1812, near Queenston, in the present-day province of Ontario...
and other actions on the Niagara peninsula.
The Incorporated Militia Battalion
This was formed from volunteers from the militia in 1813. Originally scattered in several garrisons, the battalion concentrated at York, before seeing action on the Niagara peninsula. The uniform featured green facings, although issues of uniforms were erratic and not all companies would have had the official recognised uniform. The entire unit fought at the Battle of Lundy's LaneBattle of Lundy's Lane
The Battle of Lundy's Lane was a battle of the Anglo-American War of 1812, which took place on 25 July 1814, in present-day Niagara Falls, Ontario...
.
The unit was always used as a body of skirmishing light infantry, and late in 1814, Lieutenant General Gordon Drummond
Gordon Drummond
Sir Gordon Drummond, GCB was the first Canadian-born officer to command the military and the civil government of Canada...
proposed to give the battalion the same uniform as the Glengarry Light Infantry.
Caldwell's Western Rangers
Known as Caldwell's Rangers, after their commander, noted Loyalist and Indian trader William Caldwell. The unit was a rather small one, probably not more than fifty men. Nominally organised as two companies, they often worked in conjunction with the Indian Department and fought dispersed alongside the Indians (chiefly the Ojibwe, Wyandotte and Pottowottomi). The unit, or parts of it, fought at the Battle of Moraviantown, the Battle of LongwoodsBattle of Longwoods
The Battle of Longwoods took place during the Anglo-American War of 1812. On 4 March 1814, a mounted American raiding party defeated an attempt by British regulars, volunteers from the Canadian militia and Native Americans to intercept them near Wardsville, in present-day Southwest Middlesex,...
, the Battle of Lundy's Lane
Battle of Lundy's Lane
The Battle of Lundy's Lane was a battle of the Anglo-American War of 1812, which took place on 25 July 1814, in present-day Niagara Falls, Ontario...
and in several actions on the Niagara peninsula.
There is little authenticated documentation as to the clothing and equipment carried by the Rangers. It is known that the rangers were issued a "bucket cap" (probably a cut down infantry shako
Shako
A shako is a tall, cylindrical military cap, usually with a peak or visor and sometimes tapered at the top...
without the brass plate or hackle
Hackle
The hackle is a clipped feather plume that is attached to a military headdress.In the British Army and the armies of some Commonwealth countries the hackle is worn by some infantry regiments, especially those designated as fusilier regiments and those with Scottish and Northern Irish origins. The...
), grey woollen trousers and a green woollen tunic, and a black leather bayonet belt and cartridge box. This equipment was issued only once; after that, they were told to re-supply themselves from the enemy. In summer, they would wear white cotton instead of woollen trousers.
It is not known with which model musket they were issued, although some scholars have suggested that they would have been captured American Springfield Model 1795 Musket
Model 1795 Musket
thumbThe Model 1795 Musket was a .69 caliber flintlock musket produced in the late 18th and early 19th century at both the Springfield and Harper's Ferry US Armories.The Model 1795 was the first musket to be produced in the United States...
(British forces under Isaac Brock
Isaac Brock
Major-General Sir Isaac Brock KB was a British Army officer and administrator. Brock was assigned to Canada in 1802. Despite facing desertions and near-mutinies, he commanded his regiment in Upper Canada successfully for many years...
captured over 1200 Muskets and over 200 Rifles at Detroit
Siege of Detroit
The Siege of Detroit, also known as the Surrender of Detroit, or the Battle of Fort Detroit, was an early engagement in the Anglo-American War of 1812...
) while some others contend they may have used trade muskets instead. The Rangers found that the standard infantry bayonet was too cumbersome for bush fighting and often used hatchets (tomahawks) instead.
The Rangers were recruited locally from Essex County and enrolled into the militia, but not permitted to quit the British service at their leisure as sedentary Militia could.
Fort Malden National Historic Site (Canada) has in recent years employed summer students for the re-created unit at the Park and regional re-enactments. There is also a Modern Re-enacting unit that recreates the Rangers; they are based out of Amherstburg, Ontario and work in conjunction with Fort Malden
Fort Malden
Fort Malden is a fort that stands on the remains of Fort Amherstburg in Amherstburg, Ontario. The original fort was abandoned by the British/Canadians in 1813 when Southwest Ontario fell into American hands. The Americans began building a smaller replacement fort on the same site, but this was...
.
The Loyal Kent Volunteers
A company of volunteer militiamen formed in Kent county on 25 November 1813. Fought in the Battle of LongwoodsBattle of Longwoods
The Battle of Longwoods took place during the Anglo-American War of 1812. On 4 March 1814, a mounted American raiding party defeated an attempt by British regulars, volunteers from the Canadian militia and Native Americans to intercept them near Wardsville, in present-day Southwest Middlesex,...
.
The Loyal Essex Volunteers
Another volunteer militia company, sometimes called the "Essex Rangers", embodied in Essex county about March 1814.The Mississippi Volunteers
An ad-hoc unit, recruited on the spot from voyageurs and traders during the attack on Prairie du Chien in 1814. There was also a Mississippi Volunteer Artillery detachment.The Provincial Dragoons
Also known as Merritt's troop, after its first commander, Captain William Hamilton MerrittWilliam Hamilton Merritt
William Hamilton Merritt was an influential figure in the Niagara Peninsula of Upper Canada in early 19th century and one of the fathers of the Welland Canal....
. Served on the Niagara peninsula. The Provincial Dragoons would later be seen as an ancestral unit of the 2nd/10th Dragoons
2nd/10th Dragoons
The 2nd/10th Dragoons was a militia regiment of the Canadian Army, based in the Niagara, Wentworth and Brant regions of southern Ontario...
, which currently exists today as 10th Field Battery, 56th Field Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery in St. Catharines, Ontario
St. Catharines, Ontario
St. Catharines is the largest city in Canada's Niagara Region and the sixth largest urban area in Ontario, Canada, with 97.11 square kilometres of land...
.
The Provincial Artillery Drivers
As in Lower Canada, volunteers who served as drivers for the Royal Artillery. They and their draught animals were used to convert a detachment of Royal Artillery into a "car brigade", essentially horse artillery, under Captain W.H. Jackson. The detachment was stationed at Fort GeorgeFort George, Ontario
Fort George National Historic Site is a historic military structure at Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, that was the scene of several battles during the War of 1812...
and played a major part in the Battle of Queenston Heights
Battle of Queenston Heights
The Battle of Queenston Heights was the first major battle in the War of 1812 and resulted in a British victory. It took place on 13 October 1812, near Queenston, in the present-day province of Ontario...
. Two more such detachments were subsequently formed at Kingston.
The Corps of Provincial Artificers
Attached to the Royal Sappers and MinersRoyal Engineers
The Corps of Royal Engineers, usually just called the Royal Engineers , and commonly known as the Sappers, is one of the corps of the British Army....
. All its other ranks were negroes, many of whom had formed Captain Runchey's Company of Coloured Men
Captain Runchey's Company of Coloured Men
Captain Runchey's Company of Coloured Men was a militia company of free negroes and indentured negro servants, raised in Upper Canada, which fought for the British during the early part of the Anglo-American War of 1812. In 1813, the company was transformed into the Provincial Corps of Artificers...
(a local militia unit) at the Battle of Queenston Heights
Battle of Queenston Heights
The Battle of Queenston Heights was the first major battle in the War of 1812 and resulted in a British victory. It took place on 13 October 1812, near Queenston, in the present-day province of Ontario...
.
Lower Canada
The French-speaking population of Lower Canada had a long tradition of service in the militia. In 1812, Sir George Prevost disparagingly referred to the Lower Canada militia as "a mere posse, ill-arm'd and without discipline". However, one British medical officer (William "Tiger" Dunlop) commented on seeing several units turned out for duty in late 1813,They had all a serviceable effective appearance - had been pretty well drilled, and their arms being direct from the tower, were in perfectly good order, nor had they the mobbish appearance that such a levy in any other country would have had. Their capotes and trowsers of home-spun stuff, and their blue tuques (night caps) were all of the same cut and color, which gave them an air of uniformity that added much to their military look, for I have always remarked that a body of men's appearance in battalion, depends much less on the fashion of their individual dress and appointments than on the whole being in strict uniformity. They marched merrily to the music of their voyageur songs as they perceived our [scarlet] uniform as we came up, they set up the Indian War-Whoop, followed by a shout of Vive le Roi along the whole line. Such a body of men in such a temper, and with so perfect a use of arms as all of them possessed, if posted on such ground as would preclude the possibility of regular troops out-manoeuvering them, and such positions are not hard to find in Canada, must have been rather a formidable body to have attacked.
Many militia had their own hunting weapons, and during the war, large numbers of British muskets were imported and issued to the militia.
In theory, 54,000 men were available for service with the militia. Each parish provided a militia company. These were organized for administrative purposes into "divisions", equivalent to regiments though of very variable size. These in turn were administered by the Districts of Montreal, Trois-Rivières and Quebec (although the Eastern Townships were largely independent of the Montreal district command).
Except in one or two units raised in the cities of Quebec and Montreal, militiamen and junior officers generally wore serviceable homespun clothing, perhaps with a gorget for officers. Field officers sometimes wore a variety of quasi-military uniforms.
Two companies from Beauharnois
Beauharnois, Quebec
Beauharnois is a city located in the Beauharnois-Salaberry Regional County Municipality of southwestern Quebec, Canada and is part of Greater Montreal Area. The city's population as of the Canada 2006 Census was 11,918...
were heavily engaged at the Battle of Chateauguay
Battle of Chateauguay
The Battle of the Chateauguay was a battle of the War of 1812. On 26 October 1813, a force consisting of about 1,630 French Canadian regulars and militia and Mohawk warriors under Charles de Salaberry repulsed an American force of about 4,000 attempting to invade Canada.The Chateauguay was one of...
.
Upper Canada
In Upper Canada, several parts of which were attacked or occupied by American forces during the war, there were conflicting demands on the militia. On the one hand they were required for military duty; on the other, they were urgently needed to grow and harvest crops. This hampered most attempts to organise their efforts consistently.The Upper Canadian militia were organised into Regiments, based on the "ridings" of each County, such as the 1st and 2nd Essex Militia based out of Essex County, Ontario. Normally in Upper Canada, militia units would meet once a year to receive minor military training. They would wear their own clothing and many armed themselves with their own weapons. At the instigation of Major General Isaac Brock
Isaac Brock
Major-General Sir Isaac Brock KB was a British Army officer and administrator. Brock was assigned to Canada in 1802. Despite facing desertions and near-mutinies, he commanded his regiment in Upper Canada successfully for many years...
, commanding in Upper Canada, each regiment formed two "flank companies", consisting of one captain, two subalterns, two sergeants, one drummer and thirty-five men, who were prepared to train six times per month. They were not paid, but were exempt from Jury duty or arrest in any civil case.
Early in the war, many officials feared disaffection among the population of Upper Canada, many of whom were recent immigrants from the United States. In the event, Brock did much to rally public morale by his victory at Detroit.
York and Niagara
A substantial contingent of Brock's force at Detroit consisted of volunteers from the York militia (the "York Volunteers"), who also took part together with large numbers of Lincoln militia in the Battle of Queenston HeightsBattle of Queenston Heights
The Battle of Queenston Heights was the first major battle in the War of 1812 and resulted in a British victory. It took place on 13 October 1812, near Queenston, in the present-day province of Ontario...
.
In several battles in 1813, British regulars were forced to retreat and leave the local militia either to disband (as at the Battle of Fort George
Battle of Fort George
The Battle of Fort George was a battle fought during the War of 1812, in which the Americans defeated a British force and captured the Fort George in Upper Canada...
) or make the best terms they could with the Americans (as at the Battle of York
Battle of York
The Battle of York was a battle of the War of 1812 fought on 27 April 1813, at York, Upper Canada . An American force supported by a naval flotilla landed on the lake shore to the west, defeated the defending British force and captured the town and dockyard...
). These defeats did little to improve relations between the Canadians and certain British officers. Nevertheless, militia from Lincoln County and other districts along the Niagara River continued to turn out for duty for the remainder of the war.
In 1814, up to 500 members of the local (Lincoln) and York sedentary militia took part in the Battle of Lundy's Lane
Battle of Lundy's Lane
The Battle of Lundy's Lane was a battle of the Anglo-American War of 1812, which took place on 25 July 1814, in present-day Niagara Falls, Ontario...
. Two years of warfare had not improved their military prowess. After some confused firing, most were sent away after their ammunition was redistributed among the regulars. One man was killed and twenty-one injured.
Western Districts
Late in 1813, the Americans captured Amherstburg and defeated the retreating British army under Major General Henry Procter. Until the end of the war, only small outposts of British regulars were stationed in the Western Districts of Kent, Essex and Norfolk. During 1814, American troops made several raids from Detroit or Lake Erie against these, causing much destruction. The local militia could not stop a determined expedition (for example, that which resulted in the Battle of Malcolm's MillsBattle of Malcolm's Mills
The Battle of Malcolm's Mills was a brief skirmish during the War of 1812 in which a force of American cavalry overran and scattered a force of Canadian militia. The battle was fought on November 6, 1814, near the village of Oakland, in Brant County, Ontario...
), but could stop small scale nuisance raids. Volunteer units from the militia, styling themselves for example the "Loyal Essex Volunteers", provided useful intelligence throughout the later period of the war. The Loyal Kent Volunteers took part in the Battle of Longwoods
Battle of Longwoods
The Battle of Longwoods took place during the Anglo-American War of 1812. On 4 March 1814, a mounted American raiding party defeated an attempt by British regulars, volunteers from the Canadian militia and Native Americans to intercept them near Wardsville, in present-day Southwest Middlesex,...
.
Leeds, Stormont, Dundas, Glengarry
The militia from the districts along the Saint Lawrence were never so troubled with disaffection as those further west, and took part in several raids and counter-raids over the winter of 1812-13. Temporarily reinforced with regulars, many participated in the Battle of OgdensburgBattle of Ogdensburg
The Battle of Ogdensburg was a battle of the War of 1812. The British gained a victory over the Americans and captured the village of Ogdensburg, New York...
. (Some of the Leeds militia sported captured American Rifle Regiment uniforms for the remainder of the war.)
Late in 1813, the Americans under James Wilkinson
James Wilkinson
James Wilkinson was an American soldier and statesman, who was associated with several scandals and controversies. He served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, but was twice compelled to resign...
descended the Saint Lawrence to attack Montreal. Militia from Dundas harassed the American boats. 500 militia from Stormont and Glengarry were defeated at Hoople's Creek by 1500 Americans under Jacob Brown
Jacob Brown
Jacob Jennings Brown was an American army officer in the War of 1812. His successes on the northern border during that war made him a hero. In 1821 he was appointed commanding general of the U.S. Army and held that post until his death.-Early life:Born in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, Jacob Jennings...
, but Wilkinson abandoned the campaign shortly afterwards.
Other than this episode, the militia along the Saint Lawrence were little troubled during the remainder of the war.
External links
- Selected Bibliography of the British Units in the War of 1812 compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History