James Wilkinson (March 24, 1757 – December 28, 1825) was an
AmericanThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
soldier and
statesmanA statesman or stateswoman or statesperson is usually a politician or other notable public figure who has had a long and respected career in politics or government at the national and international level. As a term of respect, it is usually left to supporters or commentators to use the term...
, who was associated with several scandals and controversies. He served in the
Continental ArmyThe American Continental Army was an army formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen...
during the
American Revolutionary WarThe American Revolutionary War , also sometimes known as the American War of Independence, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen united former British colonies in North America, and concluded in a global war between several European great powers...
, but was twice compelled to resign. He was appointed governor of the
Louisiana TerritoryThe Territory of Louisiana was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from July 4, 1805, until June 4, 1812, when it was renamed the Territory of Missouri....
in 1805 and commanded two unsuccessful campaigns in the St. Lawrence theater during the
War of 1812The War of 1812, between the United States of America and the British Empire , lasted from 1812 to 1815. It was fought chiefly on the Atlantic Ocean and on the land, coasts and waterways of North America.There were several immediate stated causes for the U.S...
. After his death, he was discovered to have been a paid agent of the Spanish Crown.
Early life
James Wilkinson was born about three miles northeast of
Benedict, MarylandBenedict, Maryland is a small unincorporated town in Charles County, Maryland, located on the Patuxent River in Southern Maryland, USA.-History:Originally a fishing village in the late 1600s, it was named Benedict-Leonardtown for Benedict Leonard Calvert....
, on a farm south of Hunting Creek, the second son of a respected
MarylandMaryland is a state located in the Mid Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Virginia, West Virginia and the District of Columbia to the south and west, Pennsylvania to the north, and Delaware to the east. It is comparable in size to the European country of Belgium. According to the U.S...
merchant–planter. He received his early education from a private tutor; his study of medicine in Philadelphia at the
University of PennsylvaniaThe University of Pennsylvania is a private research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. Penn is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States, and is one of several institutions that claims to have been the first university in America...
was interrupted by the
American RevolutionThe American Revolution is the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen of Britain's colonies in North America at first rejected the governance of the Parliament of Great Britain, and later the British monarchy itself, to become the sovereign United States of...
.
Revolutionary War actions
Wilkinson first served in Thompson's
PennsylvaniaThe Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , often colloquially referred to as PA by natives and Northeasterners, is a state located in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States...
rifle battalion, 1775–76, and was commissioned a
captainThe army rank of Captain is an officer rank historically corresponding to command of a company of soldiers. The rank is also used by some air forces and marine forces. Today a captain is typically the commander, or second in command, of a company or squadron...
in September 1775. He served as an aide to Nathanael Greene during the
Siege of BostonThe Siege of Boston was the opening phase of the American Revolutionary War, in which New England militiamen—who later became part of the Continental Army—surrounded the town of Boston, Massachusetts, to prevent movement by the British Army garrisoned within...
, participated in the seizure and placing of guns on the Dorchester Heights in March of 1776, and following the British abandonment of Boston, went with the rest of the Continental Army to New York where he left Greene's staff and was given command of an infantry company. Sent to Canada as part of the reinforcements for Benedict Arnold's intrepid little army besieging Quebec, he arrived just in time to witness the arrival of 8,000 British reinforcements under General John Burgoyne which precipitated the collapse of the American effort in Canada. He became aide to Arnold just prior to the final retreat and left Canada with Arnold on the very last boat out.
Invasion of Canada (1775)The Invasion of Canada in 1775 was the first major military initiative by the newly-formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. The objective of the campaign was to gain military control of the British Province of Quebec, and convince the French-speaking Canadiens to join the...
. Shortly thereafter, he left Arnold's service and became an aide to General
Horatio GatesHoratio Lloyd Gates was a British soldier turned American general during the Revolutionary War. He took credit for the American victory at the Battle of Saratoga and was blamed for the defeat at the Battle of Camden.-Early career:Gates was born in...
in August 1776.
When Gates sent him to Congress with official dispatches about the victory at the
Battle of SaratogaThe Battles of Saratoga, sometimes referred to as The Battle of Saratoga conclusively decided the fate of British General John Burgoyne's army in the American Revolutionary War, and are generally regarded as a turning point in the war...
, Wilkinson kept Congress waiting while he attended to personal affairs. When he finally showed up, he embellished his own role in the victory, and was
brevetIn many of the world's military establishments, brevet referred to a warrant authorizing a commissioned officer to hold a higher rank temporarily, but usually without receiving the pay of that higher rank. An officer so promoted may be referred to as being brevetted...
ted as a
brigadier generalBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
and appointed to the newly created board of war. The promotion over more senior colonels caused an uproar among Continental officers, especially because Wilkinson's gossiping seemed to indicate he was a participant in the
Conway CabalThe Conway Cabal refers to an effort in late 1777 and 1778 to remove George Washington as commander of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. It was named after Brigadier General Thomas Conway, whose letters criticizing Washington were forwarded to the Congress...
, a conspiracy to replace George Washington with Horatio Gates as commander-in-chief. Gates soon had enough of Wilkinson, and the young officer was compelled to resign in March 1778. In July 1779 he was appointed clothier general of the Army, but he was forced to resign in March 1781 amid charges of corruption.
Kentucky ventures
After his resignation from the Continental Army, Wilkinson became a
brigadier generalBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
in the Pennsylvania militia in 1782 and a state assemblyman in 1783. He moved to the
KentuckyThe Commonwealth of Kentucky is a state located in the East Central United States of America. Kentucky is a Southern state situated in the Upland South, although the state is infrequently placed, geographically and culturally, in the Midwest. Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a...
District in 1784 and was active there in efforts to achieve independence from
VirginiaThe Commonwealth of Virginia is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" because it is the birthplace of eight U.S. presidents. The geography and climate of the state are shaped by the Blue...
.
In 1787, Wilkinson undertook a highly controversial trip to New Orleans, which was a colony of
SpainSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.
[The Spanish constitution does not establish any official denomination of the country, even though España , Estado español and Nación española are used interchangeably...]
. At that time, Americans were not allowed to trade in New Orleans. Wilkinson met with Spanish Governor
Esteban Rodríguez MiróEsteban Rodriguez Miró y Sabater , also known as Esteban Miro and Estevan Miro, was a Spanish army officer and governor of the Spanish American provinces of Louisiana and Florida....
and managed to convince him to allow Kentucky to have a trading monopoly over trade on the
Mississippi RiverThe Mississippi River is the second longest river in the United States, with a length of from its source in Lake Itasca in Minnesota to its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico....
; in return he promised to promote Spanish interests in the west. In August 1787, Wilkinson signed an expatriation declaration and swore allegiance to the King of Spain.
Upon returning to Kentucky in February 1788, Wilkinson vigorously opposed the new U.S. Constitution. Kentucky had very nearly achieved statehood under the old
Articles of ConfederationThe Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, commonly referred to as the Articles of Confederation, was the first constitution of the United States of America and legally established the union of the states. The Second Continental Congress appointed a committee to draft the Articles in June...
, and there was widespread disappointment when this was delayed because of the new constitution.
Leading up to Kentucky's seventh convention regarding separation from Virginia in November 1788, Wilkinson attempted to gauge the support for Kentucky to seek union with Spain. At the convention, Wilkinson was elected chair, and he advocated seeking independence from Virginia first, and then to consider joining the Union of states as a second step. For many, joining the Union was conditional upon the Union negotiating free navigation on the Mississippi with Spain, a contentious point which many Kentuckians doubted the eastern states would act upon.
Unable to gather enough support for his position at the convention, Wilkinson instead took his own initiative and approached Miró with a proposal to grant them 60,000 acres (243 km²) in the
Yazoo landsThe Yazoo lands were the sparsely-populated central and western areas of the U.S. state of Georgia, when its western border stretched back to the Mississippi River. It was named for the Yazoo tribe of Native Americans. Several other places and things were named Yazoo, either for or along with the...
at the junction of the
Yazoo RiverThe Yazoo River is a river in the U.S. state of Mississippi.The Yazoo River was named by French explorer La Salle in 1682 in reference to the Yazoo tribe living near the river's mouth. The exact meaning of the term is unclear...
and the Mississippi (near present-day
Vicksburg, MississippiVicksburg is a city in Warren County, Mississippi, United States. It is the only city in Warren County. It is located 234 miles northwest of New Orleans on the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers, and 40 miles due west of Jackson, the state capital. In 1900, 14,834 people lived in Vicksburg; in 1910,...
). The land was to be payment for Wilkinson's efforts on behalf of Spain and also to serve as a refuge in the event he and his supporters had to flee from the United States. Wilkinson asked for and received a pension of $7,000 from Miro and also requested pensions on behalf of several prominent Kentuckians, including:
Harry InnesHarry Innes was the first federal judge in Kentucky.Innes was born in Caroline County, Virginia, the son of the Reverend Robert Innes and Catharine Innes. Innes attended Donald Robertson's school and William and Mary College...
, Benjamin Sebastian,
John BrownJohn Brown was an American lawyer and statesman heavily involved with creating the State of Kentucky.Brown represented Virginia in the Continental Congress and the U.S. Congress . While in Congress, he introduced the bill granting Statehood to Kentucky. Once that was accomplished, he was elected...
, Caleb Wallace,
Benjamin LoganBenjamin Logan was an American pioneer, soldier, and politician from Shelby County, Kentucky. As colonel of the Kentucky County militia of Virginia during the American Revolutionary War, he was second-in-command of militia in Kentucky...
,
Isaac ShelbyIsaac Shelby was the first and fifth Governor of the U.S. state of Kentucky and served in the state legislatures of Virginia and North Carolina. He was also a soldier in Lord Dunmore's War, the Revolutionary War, and the War of 1812...
,
George MuterGeorge Muter was an early settler of Kentucky and served as chief justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals.-Early life and military career:Muter was born in Madison County, Virginia. He was the son of a German father and a Scottish mother. Little is known of his early life.During the Revolutionary...
,
George NicholasGeorge Nicholas was the first professor of law at Transylvania University in Kentucky. He was also briefly attorney general of Kentucky, and had been several times a member of the Virginia House of Delegates. He attended the Constitutional Convention, and was a leader in the arguement for...
, and even Humphrey Marshall (who at one time was a bitter rival of Wilkinson's).
However, by 1788 Wilkinson had apparently lost the support of officials in the Spanish mainland. Miro was not to grant any of the proposed pensions and was forbidden from giving money to support a revolution in Kentucky. However, Wilkinson continued to secretly receive funds from Spain for many years.
Second military career
In the
Northwest Indian WarThe Northwest Indian War , also known as Little Turtle's War and by various other names, was a war fought between the United States and a large confederation of Indians for control of the Northwest Territory, which ended with a decisive U.S. victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794...
, Colonel Wilkinson led a force of Kentucky volunteers against
American IndiansNative Americans in the United States is the phrase that describes indigenous peoples from North America now encompassed by the continental United States, including parts of Alaska and the island state of Hawaii. They comprise a large number of distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of...
at
OuiatenonOuiatenon is a name that refers to a dwelling place of members of the Wea tribe of Native Americans. The name Ouiatenon, also variously given as Ouiatanon, Oujatanon, Ouiatano or other similar forms, is a French rendering of a term from the Wea dialect of the Miami-Illinois language which means...
in May 1791. He commanded a follow-up raid that autumn, highlighted by the
Battle of KenapacomaquaThe Battle of Kenapacomaqua, also called the Battle of Old Town, was a raid in 1791 by United States forces under the command of Lieutenant Colonel James Wilkinson on the Miami town of Kenapacomaqua on the Eel River approximately six miles upstream from present-day Logansport, Indiana...
. In October he received a commission to the U.S. Army as lieutenant colonel, commandant of the 2nd U.S. Infantry. He was promoted to brigadier general and served on the frontier under General
Anthony WayneAnthony Wayne was a United States Army general and statesman. Wayne adopted a military career at the outset of the American Revolutionary War, where his military exploits and fiery personality quickly earned him a promotion to the rank of brigadier general and the sobriquet of "Mad Anthony".-Early...
, commanding the right wing in the
Battle of Fallen TimbersThe Battle of Fallen Timbers was the final battle of the Northwest Indian War, a struggle between American Indian tribes affiliated with the Western Confederacy and the United States for control of the Northwest Territory...
in August 1794. During this time, he secretly maintained contacts with the Spanish government and informed them of plans for General
George Rogers ClarkGeorge Rogers Clark was a soldier from Virginia and the highest ranking American military officer on the northwestern frontier during the American Revolutionary War...
to attack New Orleans in 1793-94. He was appointed commander at
DetroitDetroit is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the seat of Wayne County. Detroit is a major port city on the Detroit River, in the Midwest region of the United States. Located north of Windsor, Ontario, Detroit is the only major U.S. city that looks south to Canada. It was founded...
in 1796 and partially redeemed himself by rejecting entreaties to lead a rebellion in the
Natchez, MississippiNatchez is the county seat of, and the largest and only incorporated city within, Adams County, Mississippi, United States. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 18,464. One of Mississippi's oldest cities, it was founded by French colonists in 1716, antedating the current...
, area. Despite his treachery, upon Wayne's death, he became the senior officer of the U.S. Army from December 15, 1796 to July 13, 1798.
Quasi-War with France
Wilkinson was transferred to the southern frontier in 1798. During the
Quasi-WarThe Quasi-War was an undeclared war fought almost entirely at sea between the United States and France from 1798 to 1800. In the United States, the conflict was sometimes also referred to as the Franco-American War, the Undeclared War with France, the Undeclared Naval War, the Pirate Wars, or the...
crisis of the late 1790s between
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
and the United States, he was given the third place in the United States Army behind George Washington and
Alexander HamiltonAlexander Hamilton was the first United States Secretary of the Treasury, a Founding Father, economist, and political philosopher...
. Among other duties, he was charged by Hamilton with establishing a "Reserve Corps" of United States troops in the lower Ohio Valley who would seize the lower Mississippi River Valley and New Orleans in the event of war with France and her ally Spain. Despite the end of the crisis in mid-1800 and the fall of Hamilton from power, Wilkinson for unknown reasons continued the plan for the establishment of the base which he named "Cantonment Wilkinson" after himself. Located in southern Illinois, the base operated from January 1801 to late 1802 before finally being abandoned. Archaeologists from
Southern Illinois UniversitySouthern Illinois University is a state university located in southern Illinois with two institutions and multiple campuses. Glenn Poshard is President of Southern Illinois University.-Southern Illinois University Carbondale:...
have recently located the remains of this base, which is producing much previously unknown information regarding the daily lives and artifacts of the frontier army.
Wilkinson was again the senior officer of the United States Army, from June 15, 1800 to January 27, 1812. Along with Governor William C. C. Claiborne, he shared the honor of taking possession of the
Louisiana PurchaseThe Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition by the United States of America of of the French territory Louisiana in 1803. The U.S...
on behalf of the United States in 1803.
Connections with Aaron Burr
In 1804-05, he exchanged communications with
Aaron BurrAaron Burr, Jr. was an American politician, Revolutionary War participant, and adventurer. He served as the third Vice President of the United States , under Thomas Jefferson....
, possibly regarding Burr's conspiracy to set up an independent nation in the west. Some embittered associates later claimed that Wilkinson was the mastermind behind the plot of which Burr was accused.
In 1805, following the
Louisiana PurchaseThe Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition by the United States of America of of the French territory Louisiana in 1803. The U.S...
,
PresidentThe President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in the United States by influence and recognition...
Thomas JeffersonThomas Jefferson was the third President of the United States , the principal author of the Declaration of Independence , and one of the most influential Founding Fathers for his promotion of the ideals of republicanism in the United States...
appointed Wilkinson governor of the northern
LouisianaThe State of Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state divided into parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties...
. He was removed from office after being publicly criticized for heavy-handed administration and abuse of power. Noting the lack of support for his new nation with Burr, Wilkinson revealed Burr's plans to Jefferson. Wilkinson testified at Burr's trial, resulting in public accusations against him and two congressional inquiries of his private ventures and intrigues. President
James MadisonJames Madison was an American politician and political philosopher who served as the fourth President of the United States , and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States....
ordered his
court-martialA court-martial is a military court. These military courts can determine punishments for members of the military subject to military law who are found guilty or may dismiss the charges based on the evidence and the case presented. Most militaries maintain a court-martial system to try cases in...
in 1811. He was found not guilty on December 25, 1811.
War of 1812
Wilkinson was commissioned a major general in the
War of 1812The War of 1812, between the United States of America and the British Empire , lasted from 1812 to 1815. It was fought chiefly on the Atlantic Ocean and on the land, coasts and waterways of North America.There were several immediate stated causes for the U.S...
. In March 1813, Wilkinson and his soldiers occupied
MobileMobile is the third most populous city in the Southern U.S. state of Alabama and is the county seat of Mobile County. It is located on the Mobile River and the central Gulf Coast of the United States. The population within the city limits was 198,915 during the 2000 census...
in Spanish
West FloridaWest Florida was a region on the north shore of the Gulf of Mexico, which underwent several boundary and sovereignty changes during its history. Parts of the territory were held at various times by France, Spain, Britain, and the United States...
. He was then assigned to the St. Lawrence River sector, after
Henry DearbornHenry Dearborn was an American physician, statesman and veteran of both the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812. Born to Simon Dearborn and Sarah Marston in North Hampton, New Hampshire, he spent much of his youth in Epping, where he attended public schools...
's reassignment. He led two failed campaigns (the
Battle of Crysler's FarmThe Battle of Crysler's Farm, also known as the Battle of Crysler's Field, was fought on 11 November, 1813, during the Anglo-American War of 1812...
and the second
Battle of Lacolle MillsBattle of Lacolle Mills may refer to a battle of the War of 1812:*Battle of Lacolle Mills *Battle of Lacolle Mills *Battle of Lacolle...
(1814) and was relieved from active service, but he was cleared by a military inquiry. He published his memoirs,
Memoirs of My Own Times, in 1816 and visited
MexicoThe United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
in pursuit of a
TexasTexas is the second-largest U.S. state in both area and population, and the largest state in the contiguous United States.The name had wide usage among native Americans, meaning "friends" or "allies"...
land grant in 1821. While waiting for Mexican approval of his Texas scheme, Wilkinson died in
Mexico CityMexico City is the capital city of Mexico. It is the economic, industrial, and cultural center in the country, and the most populous city, with about 8,836,045 inhabitants in 2008...
, where he was buried.
Wilkinson's Spanish involvement, although suspected, was not proven until 1854, with the publication by Louisiana historian
Charles GayarréCharles Etienne Arthur Gayarre was an American historian born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on 9 January 1805. A historian and a writer of plays, essays, and novels, he is chiefly remembered for his histories of Louisiana....
of his correspondence with Rodríguez Miró, the Spanish governor of Louisiana.
Wilkinson married
Ann BiddleAnn Biddle was a prominent figure in the early history of the United States, married to the eventual ranking officer of the U.S...
of the
Biddle familyWilliam Biddle and Sarah Kempe were Quakers who emigrated from England to America in 1681 in part to avoid religious persecution. Having acquired extensive rights to over of lands in Quaker West Jersey, they settled first at Burlington. Two third generation brothers, William Biddle, 3rd , and...
on November 12, 1778, and had four children with her. After Ann's death, he married Celeste Laveau Trudeau on March 5, 1810, with whom he had two children.
Dying in 1825, he was buried in Mexico City, Mexico.
Some of his descendants used the surname Wilkerson, which appears in Southern Alabama and Eastern Louisiana.
Legacy
- Historian Robert Leckie
Robert Leckie was an American author of popular books on the military history of the United States. As a young man, he served in the 1st Marine Division during World War II...
characterized him as "a general who never won a battle or lost a court-martialA court-martial is a military court. These military courts can determine punishments for members of the military subject to military law who are found guilty or may dismiss the charges based on the evidence and the case presented. Most militaries maintain a court-martial system to try cases in...
."
- Historian Frederick Jackson Turner
Frederick Jackson Turner was an American historian in the early 20th century. He is best known for The Significance of the Frontier in American History.-Early life, education, and career:...
called Wilkinson "the most consummate artist in treason that the nation ever possessed."
- George Rogers Clark
George Rogers Clark was a soldier from Virginia and the highest ranking American military officer on the northwestern frontier during the American Revolutionary War...
biographer Temple Bodley said of Wilkinson, "He had considerable military talent, but used it only for his own gain."
- Wilkinson County, Georgia
Wilkinson County is a county located in the U.S. state of Georgia. It was created on May 11, 1803. As of 2000, the population was 10,220. The 2007 Census Estimate shows a population of 10,064 . The county seat is Irwinton, Georgia.-Geography:...
, is named for Wilkinson. A Georgia historic marker on the courthouse square gives a brief biography of the General and states he is the namesake for the county.
- Wilkinson appears as a major character in the novel To the Ends of the Earth: The Last Journey of Lewis and Clark, by Frances Hunter (2006 - ISBN 0-9777636-2-5), in which he draws explorer Meriwether Lewis
Meriwether Lewis was an American explorer, soldier, and public administrator, best known for his role as the leader of the Lewis and Clark Expedition also known as the Corps of Discovery, with William Clark, whose mission was to explore the territory of the Louisiana Purchase.- Biography :Lewis...
into a conspiracy to separate the western territories from the United States.
- Wilkinson also appears as a major character in Janice Holt Giles
Janice Holt Giles was a Kentucky author who lived near Knifley in Adair County, Kentucky. She was born Janice Meredith Holt on March 28, 1909, in Altus, Arkansas. Her first marriage, to Otto Moore in 1927, ended in divorce in 1939. She met Henry Giles on a 40-hour bus trip in 1943 and married...
's novel The Land Beyond the Mountains which deals extensively with Wilkinson's participation in the issue of Kentucky statehood.
- Wilkinson County, Mississippi
Wilkinson County is a county located in the U.S. state of Mississippi. As of 2000, the population was 10,312. Its county seat is Woodville. Wilkinson County is named for military leader James Wilkinson.-Geography:According to the U.S...
is named for General Wilkinson, as well. It was there in the Old Natchez District that Wilkinson spent much of his time allegedly plotting the Burr Conspiracy, as Fort Adams (then a major U.S. Army post, located in present day Wilkinson County) was the most south-westerly point in the United States and the last stop on the Mississippi River before entering Spanish territory. It was also from these environs that Burr recruited his would-be revolutionaries, most notable amongst them a young Philip Nolan"The Man Without a Country" is a short story by American writer Edward Everett Hale, first published anonymously in the Atlantic Monthly in December 1863...
, famously remembered as "the man without a country" in literature and history.
External links