Nepenthes rafflesiana
Encyclopedia
Nepenthes rafflesiana or Raffles' Pitcher-Plant, is a species of pitcher plant
. It has a very wide distribution covering Borneo
, Sumatra
, Peninsular Malaysia
, and Singapore
. Nepenthes rafflesiana is extremely variable (second only to N. mirabilis
) with numerous forms and varieties described. In Borneo alone, there are at least four distinct varieties. The giant form of this species produces enormous pitchers rivaling those of N. rajah
in size.
Nepenthes rafflesiana is a very widespread lowland species. It is common in Borneo and parts of the Riau Archipelago
, but has a restricted distribution in both Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra. It is only widespread in the southeastern region of the Malay Peninsula
, particularly in the state of Johor
, where it is relatively abundant. Nepenthes rafflesiana has only been recorded from the west coast of Sumatra, between Indrapura
and Barus.
Nepenthes rafflesiana generally occurs in open, sandy, wet areas. It has been recorded from kerangas forest
, secondary formations, margins of peat swamp forest
, heath forest
, and seaside cliffs. It grows at elevations ranging from sea-level to 1200 m or even 1500 m.
Nepenthes rafflesiana is a scrambling vine. The stem may climb to a height of 15 m and is up to 10 mm thick. Internodes
are up to 20 cm long. Tendril
s may be over 110 cm long.
The lower pitchers of N. rafflesiana are bulbous and possess well-developed fringed wings. These terrestrial traps rarely exceed 20 cm in height, although the giant form of N. rafflesiana is known produce pitchers up to 35 cm long and 15 cm wide. Upper pitchers are funnel-shaped and often bear a distinctive raised section at the front of the peristome. Both types of pitchers have a characteristically elongated peristome neck that may be 3 cm or more in length.
Pitcher colouration varies greatly from dark purple to almost completely white. The typical form of N. rafflesiana is light green throughout with heavy purple blotches on the lower pitchers and cream-coloured aerial pitchers.
The inflorescence
is a raceme
and grows between 16 and 70 cm tall. The red or purple flowers usually occur singly, or sometimes in pairs, on each flower-stalk.
Young plants are wholly covered with long, caducous, brown or white hairs. Mature plants often have a sparse indumentum
of short, brown hairs, though they may be completely glabrous.
Nepenthes rafflesiana is found in tropical lowlands. It produces two distinct types of pitchers (heavily modified leaves), which are used to capture and kill insect prey for nutrients. The lower pitchers are generally round, squat and 'winged', while the upper pitchers are more narrow at their base. The species is widely variable and comes in a variety of shapes and colors - most contain varying amounts of green, white, and maroon streaks.
All Nepenthes are passive carnivores with no moving parts, unlike their distant cousins the Venus flytrap
. Nepenthes rafflesiana kills by luring its prey into its pitchers, whose peristome
s secrete a sweet-tasting nectar. Once the insect is inside, it quickly finds the walls of the pitcher too slippery to scale and drowns. Digestive enzymes released by the plant into the liquid break down the prey and release soluble nutrients, which are absorbed by the plant through the walls of the pitcher. The carnivorous nature of Nepenthes is supposedly a consequence of living in nutrient-poor soils; since the main method of nutrient absorption in most plants (the root) is insufficient in these soils, the plants have evolved other ways to gain nutrients. As a result, the roots of Nepenthes and most other carnivorous plant
s are slight and fragile; hence care must be taken when repotting. All Nepenthes are dioecious, meaning that each individual plant has only male or female characteristics.
Nepenthes rafflesiana was discovered by Dr. William Jack in 1819. In a letter from Singapore published in Curtis's Botanical Magazine
, Jack wrote the following account:
At the time the largest known species in the genus, N. rafflesiana was described in the Gardener's and Farmer's Journal for 1850 as follows:
and fungi
a chance to take hold.
altogether.
and coastal regions of northern Sarawak
around Miri
and Gunung Mulu National Park
.
Nepenthes rafflesiana var. elongata appears to rely on different prey trapping strategies as compared to other varieties of the species. Unlike the typical form, the upper pitchers of the elongate form of N. rafflesiana have an expanded waxy zone and watery, less viscoelastic pitcher fluid. They also appear to lack UV
patterns and produce less nectar and odour attractants.
Hardwicke's Woolly Bat
s (Kerivoula hardwickii) commonly roost in the upper pitchers of N. rafflesiana var. elongata. This relationship appears to be mutualistic
, with the plant providing shelter for the bats and in return receiving additional nitrogen input in the form of faeces. It has been estimated that the plant derives 33.8% of its total foliar nitrogen from the animals' droppings.
. The typical habitat of this form is dense heath forest
, especially around vegetation boundaries.
The giant form is a much larger plant than the typical form in all respects. The stem may climb to a height of 15 m. Leaf blades are around two and a half times as long as usual. Lower pitchers reach 35 cm in height by 15 cm in width and sometimes exceed 1 litre in volume, making them some of the largest in the genus. They vary widely in pigmentation, from white with red blotches to dark purple. Upper pitchers may be spotted or green throughout. The inflorescence is also massive, reaching over 1 m in length. The individual flowers measure up to 1.5 cm in diameter and have dark red tepal
s.
In addition to its size, the giant form is distinguished by the colour of its developing leaves, which have a bronze sheen. Both this characteristic and the plant's exceptional size are exhibited by cultivated specimens and thus they cannot be due to unusual environmental factors.
Most wild populations of Nepenthes, including N. rafflesiana, are endangered due to habitat destruction and (to a lesser extent) poaching. N. rafflesiana is currently listed as a CITES
Appendix II plant, so it does have some international trade restrictions (though not an outright ban). Today, most N. rafflesiana plants on the market are propagated by plant tissue culture
or other forms of vegetative propagation. When purchasing any plant, especially those protected by CITES, it is important to ask the vendor about the plant's provenance.
Pitcher plant
Pitcher plants are carnivorous plants whose prey-trapping mechanism features a deep cavity filled with liquid known as a pitfall trap. It has been widely assumed that the various sorts of pitfall trap evolved from rolled leaves, with selection pressure favouring more deeply cupped leaves over...
. It has a very wide distribution covering Borneo
Borneo
Borneo is the third largest island in the world and is located north of Java Island, Indonesia, at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia....
, Sumatra
Sumatra
Sumatra is an island in western Indonesia, westernmost of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island entirely in Indonesia , and the sixth largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 with a population of 50,365,538...
, Peninsular Malaysia
Peninsular Malaysia
Peninsular Malaysia , also known as West Malaysia , is the part of Malaysia which lies on the Malay Peninsula. Its area is . It shares a land border with Thailand in the north. To the south is the island of Singapore. Across the Strait of Malacca to the west lies the island of Sumatra...
, and Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
. Nepenthes rafflesiana is extremely variable (second only to N. mirabilis
Nepenthes mirabilis
Nepenthes mirabilis , or the Common Swamp Pitcher-Plant, is a tropical carnivorous plant species of the pitfall trap variety. It has by far the widest distribution of any Nepenthes species and is known from the following countries and regions: Borneo, Sumatra, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,...
) with numerous forms and varieties described. In Borneo alone, there are at least four distinct varieties. The giant form of this species produces enormous pitchers rivaling those of N. rajah
Nepenthes rajah
Nepenthes rajah is an insectivorous pitcher plant species of the Nepenthaceae family. It is endemic to Mount Kinabalu and neighbouring Mount Tambuyukon in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Nepenthes rajah grows exclusively on serpentine substrates, particularly in areas of seeping ground water where the...
in size.
Distribution and habitat
Riau Archipelago
Not to be confused with Riau Islands Province, a province of Indonesia.The Riau Archipelago is the core group of islands within the Riau Islands Province in Indonesia, and located south of Singapore...
, but has a restricted distribution in both Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra. It is only widespread in the southeastern region of the Malay Peninsula
Malay Peninsula
The Malay Peninsula or Thai-Malay Peninsula is a peninsula in Southeast Asia. The land mass runs approximately north-south and, at its terminus, is the southern-most point of the Asian mainland...
, particularly in the state of Johor
Johor
Johor is a Malaysian state, located in the southern portion of Peninsular Malaysia. It is one of the most developed states in Malaysia. The state capital city and royal city of Johor is Johor Bahru, formerly known as Tanjung Puteri...
, where it is relatively abundant. Nepenthes rafflesiana has only been recorded from the west coast of Sumatra, between Indrapura
Indrapura
Indrapura is the name of several historical cities in South Asia and Southeast Asia.-Places:* Indrapura , capital city of the Champa Kingdom in 9th century A.D....
and Barus.
Nepenthes rafflesiana generally occurs in open, sandy, wet areas. It has been recorded from kerangas forest
Kerangas forest
Sundaland heath forest, also known as Kerangas forest, is a type of tropical moist forest found on the island of Borneo, which is divided between Brunei, Indonesia, and Malaysia, as well as on the Indonesian islands of Belitung and Bangka, which lie to the west of Borneo.-Setting:The word Kerangas,...
, secondary formations, margins of peat swamp forest
Peat swamp forest
Peat swamp forests are tropical moist forests where waterlogged soils prevent dead leaves and wood from fully decomposing, which over time creates a thick layer of acidic peat...
, heath forest
Heath forest
Heath forest is a type of tropical moist forest found in areas with acidic, sandy soils that are extremely nutrient-poor. Notable examples are the Rio Negro campinarana of the Amazon Basin in South America, and the Sundaland heath forests of Borneo and neighboring islands.-External links:**...
, and seaside cliffs. It grows at elevations ranging from sea-level to 1200 m or even 1500 m.
Description
Plant stem
A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant. The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes, the nodes hold buds which grow into one or more leaves, inflorescence , conifer cones, roots, other stems etc. The internodes distance one node from another...
are up to 20 cm long. Tendril
Tendril
In botany, a tendril is a specialized stem, leaf or petiole with a threadlike shape that is used by climbing plants for support, attachment and cellular invasion by parasitic plants, generally by twining around suitable hosts. They do not have a lamina or blade, but they can photosynthesize...
s may be over 110 cm long.
The lower pitchers of N. rafflesiana are bulbous and possess well-developed fringed wings. These terrestrial traps rarely exceed 20 cm in height, although the giant form of N. rafflesiana is known produce pitchers up to 35 cm long and 15 cm wide. Upper pitchers are funnel-shaped and often bear a distinctive raised section at the front of the peristome. Both types of pitchers have a characteristically elongated peristome neck that may be 3 cm or more in length.
Pitcher colouration varies greatly from dark purple to almost completely white. The typical form of N. rafflesiana is light green throughout with heavy purple blotches on the lower pitchers and cream-coloured aerial pitchers.
The inflorescence
Inflorescence
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Strictly, it is the part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed and which is accordingly modified...
is a raceme
Raceme
A raceme is a type of inflorescence that is unbranched and indeterminate and bears pedicellate flowers — flowers having short floral stalks called pedicels — along the axis. In botany, axis means a shoot, in this case one bearing the flowers. In a raceme, the oldest flowers are borne...
and grows between 16 and 70 cm tall. The red or purple flowers usually occur singly, or sometimes in pairs, on each flower-stalk.
Young plants are wholly covered with long, caducous, brown or white hairs. Mature plants often have a sparse indumentum
Indumentum
The indumentum is a covering of fine hairs or bristles on a plant or insect.In plants, the indumentum types are:*pubescent*hirsute*pilose*villous*tomentose*stellate*scabrous*scurfy...
of short, brown hairs, though they may be completely glabrous.
Biology
All Nepenthes are passive carnivores with no moving parts, unlike their distant cousins the Venus flytrap
Venus Flytrap
The Venus Flytrap , Dionaea muscipula, is a carnivorous plant that catches and digests animal prey—mostly insects and arachnids. Its trapping structure is formed by the terminal portion of each of the plant's leaves and is triggered by tiny hairs on their inner surfaces...
. Nepenthes rafflesiana kills by luring its prey into its pitchers, whose peristome
Peristome
The word peristome is derived from the Greek peri, meaning 'around' or 'about', and stoma, 'mouth'. It is a term used to describe various anatomical features that surround an opening to an organ or structure. The term is used in plants and invertebrate animals, such as in describing the shells of...
s secrete a sweet-tasting nectar. Once the insect is inside, it quickly finds the walls of the pitcher too slippery to scale and drowns. Digestive enzymes released by the plant into the liquid break down the prey and release soluble nutrients, which are absorbed by the plant through the walls of the pitcher. The carnivorous nature of Nepenthes is supposedly a consequence of living in nutrient-poor soils; since the main method of nutrient absorption in most plants (the root) is insufficient in these soils, the plants have evolved other ways to gain nutrients. As a result, the roots of Nepenthes and most other carnivorous plant
Carnivorous plant
Carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, typically insects and other arthropods. Carnivorous plants appear adapted to grow in places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients, especially nitrogen, such as acidic...
s are slight and fragile; hence care must be taken when repotting. All Nepenthes are dioecious, meaning that each individual plant has only male or female characteristics.
Discovery and early history
Curtis's Botanical Magazine
The Botanical Magazine; or Flower-Garden Displayed, is an illustrated publication which began in 1787. The longest running botanical magazine, it is widely referred to by the subsequent name Curtis's Botanical Magazine....
, Jack wrote the following account:
It is impossible to conceive anything more beautiful than the approach to Singapore, through the Archipelago of islands that lie at the extremity of the Straits of Malacca. Seas of glass wind among innumerable islets, clothed in all the luxuriance of tropical vegetation and basking in the full brilliance of a tropical sky... I have just arrived in time to explore the woods before they yield to the axe, and have made many interesting discoveries, particularly of two new and splendid species of pitcher-plant [Nepenthes rafflesiana and Nepenthes ampullaria], far surpassing any yet known in Europe. I have completed two perfect drawings of them with ample descriptions. Sir S. Raffles is anxious that we should give publicity to our researches in one way or other and has planned bringing out something at Bencoolen. He proposes sending home these pitcher-plants that such splendid things may appear under all the advantages of elegant execution, by way of attracting attention to the subject of Sumatran botany.
At the time the largest known species in the genus, N. rafflesiana was described in the Gardener's and Farmer's Journal for 1850 as follows:
Whoever has seen this plant in a living state must undoubted be constrained to consider it as one of the most astonishing productions of the whole vegetable kingdom. The resemblance that a portion of it bears to our more familiar domestic utensils leaves a lasting impression on the minds of spectators that is not easily eradicated; it is the largest and most magnificent of the genus, far surpassing any hitherto known in Europe.
Cultivation
Nepenthes rafflesiana is very popular in cultivation; it is a lowland Nepenthes (enjoying hot, humid conditions most of the time, as found in tropical jungle lowlands) but can be grown as an intermediate, with cooler nights and less humidity. It is a comparatively hardy Nepenthes that is commonly recommended as a "first plant" to new Nepenthes growers. The plant should be grown in shaded conditions, diffuse sunlight, or in a large grow chamber under artificial lights. Watering and misting should be performed frequently, and preferably with distilled water, to avoid mineral build-up that is not only unsightly but that may damage the delicate roots of Nepenthes (and most other carnivorous plants). Standing water is inadvisable. A wet, well-draining potting medium is a necessity. Methods of feeding are varied - some growers feed freeze-dried bloodworms or Koi pellets (both available in the fish section of most pet stores); others prefer orchid mixes. No carnivorous plant should ever be fed mammalian meat - this will result not only in an unpleasant smell but also the probable rotting of the pitcher and potential death of the plant. The digestive enzymes present have not evolved to handle large prey items, and the rotting material gives opportunistic bacteriaBacteria
Bacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
and fungi
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
a chance to take hold.
Infraspecific taxa
Across its expansive range, N. rafflesiana exhibits great variability in terms of both pitcher morphology and colour. The following infraspecific taxa of N. rafflesiana have been described. Most of these are not considered valid today, and four represent different taxaTaxon
|thumb|270px|[[African elephants]] form a widely-accepted taxon, the [[genus]] LoxodontaA taxon is a group of organisms, which a taxonomist adjudges to be a unit. Usually a taxon is given a name and a rank, although neither is a requirement...
altogether.
- Nepenthes rafflesiana f. alba Hort.Westphal (2000) nom.nud.Nomen nudumThe phrase nomen nudum is a Latin term, meaning "naked name", used in taxonomy...
- Nepenthes rafflesiana var. alata J.H.Adam & Wilcock (1990)
- Nepenthes rafflesiana var. ambigua G.Beck (1895)
- Nepenthes rafflesiana var. elongata Hort.Kew ex DyerWilliam Turner Thiselton-DyerSir William Turner Thiselton-Dyer KCMG FRS FLS was a leading British botanist, and the third director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.- Life and career :Thiselton-Dyer was born in Westminster, London...
(1897) nom.nud.Nomen nudumThe phrase nomen nudum is a Latin term, meaning "naked name", used in taxonomy... - Nepenthes rafflesiana var. excelsior (Hort.Williams) G.Beck (1895) [=(N. ampullariaNepenthes ampullariaNepenthes ampullaria , the Flask-Shaped Pitcher-Plant, is a very distinctive and widespread species of Nepenthes, present in Borneo, Sumatra, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, the Maluku Islands, and New Guinea...
× N. rafflesiana) × N. rafflesiana] - Nepenthes rafflesiana var. glaberrima Hook.f. (1873)
- Nepenthes rafflesiana var. hookeriana (auct. non Low: Hort.Veitch ex Mast.) Becc. (1886) [=N. × hookerianaNepenthes x hookerianaNepenthes × hookeriana , or Hooker's Pitcher-Plant, is a common natural hybrid involving N. rafflesiana and N. ampullaria. It was originally described as a species....
] - Nepenthes rafflesiana var. insignis Mast. (1882)
- Nepenthes rafflesiana var. longicirrhosa Tamin & M.Hotta in M.Hotta (1986) nom.nud.Nomen nudumThe phrase nomen nudum is a Latin term, meaning "naked name", used in taxonomy...
[=N. longifoliaNepenthes longifoliaNepenthes longifolia is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to Sumatra, where it grows at elevations of between 300 and 1100 m above sea level. The specific epithet longifolia, formed from the Latin words longus and folius , refers to the exceptionally large leaves of this species.-Botanical...
] - Nepenthes rafflesiana var. minor Becc. (1886)
- Nepenthes rafflesiana var. nigropurpurea Mast. (1882)
- Nepenthes rafflesiana var. nivea Hook.f. (1873)
- Nepenthes rafflesiana var. pallida Hort.Veitch ex Burb. (1883) [=(N. khasianaNepenthes khasianaNepenthes khasiana |endemic]]) is a tropical pitcher plant of the genus Nepenthes. It is the only Nepenthes species native to India....
× N. gracilisNepenthes gracilisNepenthes gracilis , or the Slender Pitcher-Plant, is a very common lowland pitcher plant that is widespread in the Sunda region. It has been recorded from Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, central Sulawesi, Sumatra, and southernmost Thailand...
) × N. rafflesiana] - Nepenthes rafflesiana var. striata Teijsm.Johannes Elias TeijsmannJohannes Elias Teijsmann was a botanist and plant collector. He was born in Arnhem, Netherlands.Teijsmann travelled to Java in 1830 as Gardener of Governor General van den Bosch. He was appointed the Curator of the Buitenzorg Botanic Gardens the following year, a post he held until 1869...
(1859) nom.nud.Nomen nudumThe phrase nomen nudum is a Latin term, meaning "naked name", used in taxonomy... - Nepenthes rafflesiana var. subglandulosa J.H.Adam & Hafiza (2006)
- Nepenthes rafflesiana var. typica G.Beck (1895) nom.illeg.Nomen illegitimumA nomen illegitimum is a technical term, used mainly in botany. It is usually abbreviated as nom. illeg..-Definition:...
- Nepenthes rafflesiana var. viridis Teijsm.Johannes Elias TeijsmannJohannes Elias Teijsmann was a botanist and plant collector. He was born in Arnhem, Netherlands.Teijsmann travelled to Java in 1830 as Gardener of Governor General van den Bosch. He was appointed the Curator of the Buitenzorg Botanic Gardens the following year, a post he held until 1869...
(1859) nom.nud.Nomen nudumThe phrase nomen nudum is a Latin term, meaning "naked name", used in taxonomy... - Nepenthes rafflesiana var. vittata Lauffenburger (1995) nom.nud.Nomen nudumThe phrase nomen nudum is a Latin term, meaning "naked name", used in taxonomy...
Elongate form
The elongate form of N. rafflesiana, also known informally as N. rafflesiana var. elongata and N. sp. "elegance", is very similar to the typical form but is elongated in all respects. It has been recorded from BruneiBrunei
Brunei , officially the State of Brunei Darussalam or the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace , is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, in Southeast Asia...
and coastal regions of northern Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Known as Bumi Kenyalang , Sarawak is situated on the north-west of the island. It is the largest state in Malaysia followed by Sabah, the second largest state located to the North- East.The administrative capital is Kuching, which...
around Miri
Miri
Miri is a city in northern Sarawak, Malaysia, on the island of Borneo. It is the second largest city in Sarawak, with a population of about 300,000, and the government administrative centre of Miri District in Miri Division....
and Gunung Mulu National Park
Gunung Mulu National Park
Gunung Mulu National Park near Miri, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that encompasses incredible caves and karst formations in a mountainous equatorial rainforest setting...
.
Nepenthes rafflesiana var. elongata appears to rely on different prey trapping strategies as compared to other varieties of the species. Unlike the typical form, the upper pitchers of the elongate form of N. rafflesiana have an expanded waxy zone and watery, less viscoelastic pitcher fluid. They also appear to lack UV
Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays, in the range 10 nm to 400 nm, and energies from 3 eV to 124 eV...
patterns and produce less nectar and odour attractants.
Hardwicke's Woolly Bat
Hardwicke's Woolly Bat
Hardwicke's Woolly Bat is a species of vesper bat in the Vespertilionidae family. It is found in China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam....
s (Kerivoula hardwickii) commonly roost in the upper pitchers of N. rafflesiana var. elongata. This relationship appears to be mutualistic
Mutualism
Mutualism is the way two organisms of different species biologically interact in a relationship in which each individual derives a fitness benefit . Similar interactions within a species are known as co-operation...
, with the plant providing shelter for the bats and in return receiving additional nitrogen input in the form of faeces. It has been estimated that the plant derives 33.8% of its total foliar nitrogen from the animals' droppings.
Giant form
Giant plants of N. rafflesiana have been recorded from a number of isolated localities on the northwestern coast of Borneo and one population has been found near the seaside town of Sematan, around 110 km west of KuchingKuching
Kuching , officially the City of Kuching, and formerly the City of Sarawak, is the capital and most populous city of the East Malaysian state of Sarawak. It is the largest city on the island of Borneo, and the fourth largest city in Malaysia....
. The typical habitat of this form is dense heath forest
Heath forest
Heath forest is a type of tropical moist forest found in areas with acidic, sandy soils that are extremely nutrient-poor. Notable examples are the Rio Negro campinarana of the Amazon Basin in South America, and the Sundaland heath forests of Borneo and neighboring islands.-External links:**...
, especially around vegetation boundaries.
The giant form is a much larger plant than the typical form in all respects. The stem may climb to a height of 15 m. Leaf blades are around two and a half times as long as usual. Lower pitchers reach 35 cm in height by 15 cm in width and sometimes exceed 1 litre in volume, making them some of the largest in the genus. They vary widely in pigmentation, from white with red blotches to dark purple. Upper pitchers may be spotted or green throughout. The inflorescence is also massive, reaching over 1 m in length. The individual flowers measure up to 1.5 cm in diameter and have dark red tepal
Tepal
Tepals are elements of the perianth, or outer part of a flower, which include the petals or sepals. The term tepal is more often applied specifically when all segments of the perianth are of similar shape and color, or undifferentiated, which is called perigone...
s.
In addition to its size, the giant form is distinguished by the colour of its developing leaves, which have a bronze sheen. Both this characteristic and the plant's exceptional size are exhibited by cultivated specimens and thus they cannot be due to unusual environmental factors.
Natural hybrids
The following natural hybrids involving N. rafflesiana have been recorded.- N. albomarginataNepenthes albomarginataNepenthes albomarginata , the White-Collared Pitcher-Plant, is a tropical pitcher plant native to Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra...
× N. rafflesiana - N. ampullariaNepenthes ampullariaNepenthes ampullaria , the Flask-Shaped Pitcher-Plant, is a very distinctive and widespread species of Nepenthes, present in Borneo, Sumatra, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, the Maluku Islands, and New Guinea...
× N. rafflesiana [=N. × hookerianaNepenthes x hookerianaNepenthes × hookeriana , or Hooker's Pitcher-Plant, is a common natural hybrid involving N. rafflesiana and N. ampullaria. It was originally described as a species....
] - ? (N. ampullariaNepenthes ampullariaNepenthes ampullaria , the Flask-Shaped Pitcher-Plant, is a very distinctive and widespread species of Nepenthes, present in Borneo, Sumatra, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, the Maluku Islands, and New Guinea...
× N. rafflesiana) × N. mirabilisNepenthes mirabilisNepenthes mirabilis , or the Common Swamp Pitcher-Plant, is a tropical carnivorous plant species of the pitfall trap variety. It has by far the widest distribution of any Nepenthes species and is known from the following countries and regions: Borneo, Sumatra, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,...
[=N. × hookerianaNepenthes x hookerianaNepenthes × hookeriana , or Hooker's Pitcher-Plant, is a common natural hybrid involving N. rafflesiana and N. ampullaria. It was originally described as a species....
× N. mirabilisNepenthes mirabilisNepenthes mirabilis , or the Common Swamp Pitcher-Plant, is a tropical carnivorous plant species of the pitfall trap variety. It has by far the widest distribution of any Nepenthes species and is known from the following countries and regions: Borneo, Sumatra, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,...
] - N. bicalcarataNepenthes bicalcarataNepenthes bicalcarata , also known as the Fanged Pitcher-Plant, is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to northwestern Borneo.-Botanical history:...
× N. rafflesiana - ? (N. bicalcarataNepenthes bicalcarataNepenthes bicalcarata , also known as the Fanged Pitcher-Plant, is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to northwestern Borneo.-Botanical history:...
× N. rafflesiana) × N. mirabilis var. echinostomaNepenthes mirabilisNepenthes mirabilis , or the Common Swamp Pitcher-Plant, is a tropical carnivorous plant species of the pitfall trap variety. It has by far the widest distribution of any Nepenthes species and is known from the following countries and regions: Borneo, Sumatra, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,... - N. clipeataNepenthes clipeataNepenthes clipeata , or the Shield-Leaved Pitcher-Plant, is a tropical pitcher plant known only from the near-vertical granite cliff faces of Mount Kelam in Kalimantan, Borneo...
× N. rafflesiana - N. gracilisNepenthes gracilisNepenthes gracilis , or the Slender Pitcher-Plant, is a very common lowland pitcher plant that is widespread in the Sunda region. It has been recorded from Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, central Sulawesi, Sumatra, and southernmost Thailand...
× N. rafflesiana - N. mirabilisNepenthes mirabilisNepenthes mirabilis , or the Common Swamp Pitcher-Plant, is a tropical carnivorous plant species of the pitfall trap variety. It has by far the widest distribution of any Nepenthes species and is known from the following countries and regions: Borneo, Sumatra, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,...
× N. rafflesiana (including N. mirabilis var. echinostoma × N. rafflesiana)
Conservation
Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
CITES is a multilateral treaty, drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature...
Appendix II plant, so it does have some international trade restrictions (though not an outright ban). Today, most N. rafflesiana plants on the market are propagated by plant tissue culture
Plant tissue culture
Plant tissue culture is a collection of techniques used to maintain or grow plant cells, tissues or organs under sterile conditions on a nutrient culture medium of known composition. Plant tissue culture is widely used to produce clones of a plant in a method known as micropropagation...
or other forms of vegetative propagation. When purchasing any plant, especially those protected by CITES, it is important to ask the vendor about the plant's provenance.
Further reading
- Adam, J.H. 1997. Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science 20(2–3): 121–134.
- Adam, J.H. & C.C. Wilcock 1999. Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science 22(1): 1–7.
- Adam, J.H., E.M. Nurulhuda, H. Abdul-Halim, O. Abdul-Rahim, A.H. Hafiza, G.K. Gopir, L.M. Pilik, R. Omar, M.B. Qasim, J. Salimon, S. Abdul-Rahim & M.M. Hanafiah 2005. Pitcher plants recorded from BRIS forest in Jambu Bongkok, Kuala Trengganu, Malaysia. Wetland Science 3(3): 183–189. Adam, J.H., J.N. Maisarah, A.T.S. Norhafizah, A.H. Hafiza, M.Y. Harun & O.A. Rahim et al. 2009. Ciri Tanih Pada Habitat Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae) di Padang Tujuh, Taman Negeri Endau-Rompin Pahang. [Soil Properties in Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae) Habitat at Padang Tujuh, Endau-Rompin State Park, Pahang.] In: J.H. Adam, G.M. Barzani & S. Zaini (eds.) Bio-Kejuruteraan and Kelestarian Ekosistem. [Bio-Engineering and Sustainable Ecosystem.] Kumpulan Penyelidikan Kesihatan Persekitaran, Pusat Penyelidikan Bukit Fraser and Universiti Kebangsaan, Malaysia. pp. 147–157.
- Adam, J.H., H.A. Hamid, M.A.A. Juhari, S.N.A. Tarmizi & W.M.R. Idris 2011. Species composition and dispersion pattern of pitcher plants recorded from Rantau Abang in Marang District, Terengganu State of Malaysia. International Journal of Botany 7(2): 162–169.
- Adams, R.M. & G.W. Smith 1977. An S.E.M. survey of the five carnivorous pitcher plant genera. American Journal of Botany 64(3): 265–272.
- Bauer, U., C. Willmes & W. Federle 2009. Effect of pitcher age on trapping efficiency and natural prey capture in carnivorous Nepenthes rafflesiana plants. Annals of Botany 103(8): 1219–1226.
- Beaman, J.H. & C. Anderson 2004. The Plants of Mount Kinabalu: 5. Dicotyledon Families Magnoliaceae to Winteraceae. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
- Bonhomme, V., H. Pelloux-Prayer, E. Jousselin, Y. Forterre, J.-J. Labat & L. Gaume 2011. Slippery or sticky? Functional diversity in the trapping strategy of Nepenthes carnivorous plants. New Phytologist 191(2): 545–554.
- Cannon, J., V. Lojanapiwatna, C. Raston, W. Sinchai & A. White 1980. The Quinones of Nepenthes rafflesiana. The Crystal Structure of 2,5-Dihydroxy-3,8-dimethoxy-7-methylnaphtho-1,4-quinone (Nepenthone-E) and a Synthesis of 2,5-Dihydroxy-3-Methoxy-7-methylnaphtho-1,4-quinone (Nepenthone-C). Australian Journal of Chemistry 33(5): 1073–1093.
- Di Giusto, B., V. Grosbois, E. Fargeas, D.J. Marshall & L. Gaume 2008. Contribution of pitcher fragrance and fluid viscosity to high prey diversity in a Nepenthes carnivorous plant from Borneo. Journal of Biosciences 33(1): 121–136.
- Di Giusto, B., M. Guéroult, N. Rowe & L. Gaume 2009. Chapter 7: The Waxy Surface in Nepenthes Pitcher Plants: Variability, Adaptive Significance and Developmental Evolution. In: S.N. Gorb (ed.) Functional Surfaces in Biology: Adhesion Related Phenomena. Volume 2. Springer. pp. 183–204.
- Di Giusto, B., J.-M. Bessière, M. Guéroult, L.B.L. Lim, D.J. Marshall, M. Hossaert-McKey & L. Gaume 2010. Flower-scent mimicry masks a deadly trap in the carnivorous plant Nepenthes rafflesiana. Journal of Ecology, published online April 28, 2010.
- Gaume, L. & B.D. Giusto 2009. Adaptive significance and ontogenetic variability of the waxy zone in Nepenthes rafflesiana. Annals of Botany 104(7): 1281–1291. Handayani, T. & Syamsuddin 1998. Nepenthes rafflesiana Jack dan keturunannya. Warta Kebun Raya 2/3: 1–8. Handayani, T. 1999. [Conservation of Nepenthes in Indonesian botanic gardens.] In: A. Mardiastuti, I. Sudirman, K.G. Wiryawan, L.I. Sudirman, M.P. Tampubolon, R. Megia & Y. Lestari (eds.) Prosiding II: Seminar Hasil-Hasil Penelitian Bidang Ilmu Hayat. Pusat Antar Universitas Ilmu Hayat IPB, Bogor. pp. 365–372.
- Handayani, T., D. Latifah & Dodo 2005. Biodiversitas 6(4): 251–255.
- Hansen, E. 2001. Where rocks sing, ants swim, and plants eat animals: finding members of the Nepenthes carnivorous plant family in Borneo. Discover 22(10): 60–68.
- Hernawati & P. Akhriadi 2006. A Field Guide to the Nepenthes of Sumatra. PILI-NGO Movement, Bogor. Mansur, M. 2001. In: Prosiding Seminar Hari Cinta Puspa dan Satwa Nasional. Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Bogor. pp. 244–253.
- Mogi, M. & K.L. Chan 1997. Variation in communities of dipterans in Nepenthes pitchers in Singapore: Predators increase prey community diversity. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 90(2): 177–183.
- Moran, J.A. 1991. The role and mechanism of Nepenthes rafflesiana pitchers as insect traps in Brunei. Ph.D. thesis, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland.
- Moran, J.A. 1993. Visitors to the flowers of the pitcher plant Nepenthes rafflesiana. Brunei Museum JournalBrunei Museum JournalBrunei Museum Journal is an academic journal, published annually by the Brunei Museum. Its first volume was produced in 1969.The journal is dedicated to the advancement of knowledge of Brunei Darussalam, Borneo, and Southeast Asia...
8: 73–75. - Moran, J.A. 1993. Pitcher allocation strategy of the pitcher plant Nepenthes rafflesiana. Brunei Museum Journal 8: 77–80.
- Moran, J.A. 1993. The effect of pitcher wing removal on prey capture by the pitcher plant Nepenthes rafflesiana. Brunei Museum Journal 8: 81–82.
- Moran, J.A. 1993. Misumenops nepenthicola: the top aquatic predator of the Nepenthes food web? Brunei Museum Journal 8: 83–84.
- Moran, J.A. 1996. Pitcher dimorphism, prey composition and the mechanisms of prey attraction in the pitcher plant Nepenthes rafflesiana in Borneo. Journal of Ecology 84: 515–525.
- Moran, J.A. & A.J. Moran 1998. Foliar Reflectance and Vector Analysis Reveal Nutrient Stress in Prey-Deprived Pitcher Plants (Nepenthes rafflesiana). International Journal of Plant Sciences 159(6): 996–1001.
- Moran, J.A., W.E. Booth & J.K. Charles 1999. Annals of Botany 83: 521–528.
- Moran, J.A., B.J. Hawkins, B.E. Gowen & S.L. Robbins 2010. Ion fluxes across the pitcher walls of three Bornean Nepenthes pitcher plant species: flux rates and gland distribution patterns reflect nitrogen sequestration strategies. Journal of Experimental Botany 61(5): 1365–1374.
- Reiskind, J. 1978. Carnivorous Plant NewsletterCarnivorous Plant NewsletterThe Carnivorous Plant Newsletter is the official publication of the International Carnivorous Plant Society , the largest such organization in the world.-History and editorship:...
7(3): 77–78. - Rizzacasa, M.A. & M.V. Sargent 1987. The structure and synthesis of nepenthone-A, a naphthoquinone from Nepenthes rafflesiana. Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1: 2017–2022.
- Shivas, R.G. 1984. Pitcher Plants of Peninsular Malaysia & Singapore. Maruzen Asia, Kuala Lumpur.
- Smythies, B.E. 1965. The distribution and ecology of pitcher-plants (Nepenthes) in Sarawak. UNESCO Humid Tropics Symposium, June–July 1963, Kuching, Sarawak. Sukmadijaya, D., D. Dinarti & Y. Isnaini 2010. Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor.
- Teo, L.L. 2001. Study of natural hybridisation in some tropical plants using amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis. M.Sc. thesis, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
- Teo, W.M.S. 2010. Photosynthetic characteristics and nitrogen metabolism of Nepenthes rafflesiana at two different growth stages in response to inorganic nitrate and organic prey. M.Sc. thesis, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
- Thorogood, C. 2010. The Malaysian Nepenthes: Evolutionary and Taxonomic Perspectives. Nova Science Publishers, New York.
- Torres-Rivera, J.J. 2007. A case of Nepenthes rafflesiana with a lotus-like flower! Carnivorous Plant NewsletterCarnivorous Plant NewsletterThe Carnivorous Plant Newsletter is the official publication of the International Carnivorous Plant Society , the largest such organization in the world.-History and editorship:...
36(3): 81–82. Yogiara 2004. M.Sc. thesis, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor. - Yogiara, A. Suwanto & M.T. Suhartono 2006. A complex bacterial community living in pitcher plant fluid. Jurnal Mikrobiologi Indonesia 11(1): 9–14.
- Zulaiha Shireen bte Mohd Salleh 2009. Carbon and nitrogen metabolism and mineral nutrition of carnivorous pitcher plants under greenhouse conditions. M.Sc. thesis, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.