Ethelfleda
Encyclopedia
Æthelflæd
Æthelflæd ( (869
/ 870
–918
), was the eldest daughter of King Alfred the Great
of Wessex
and Ealhswith
, wife of Æthelred, ealdorman of Mercia, and after his death, ruler of Mercia (911–918). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle styles her "Lady of the Mercians" (Myrcna hlæfdige).
, who calls her the first-born child of Alfred and Ealhswith and a sister to Edward
, Æthelgifu, Ælfthryth and Æthelweard. By the time he wrote, roughly about the year 890, she was already married to Æthelred, then ealdorman of Mercia.
They had one daughter, Ælfwynn.
overran most of the English Kingdoms
such as Northumbria
, Eastern Mercia
, East Anglia
and even threatened the very existence of Wessex. Alfred
and his descendants reconquered these lands from the Danes by 937
. The aid given him in this by Mercia had to be acknowledged. Instead of making the dominion of Wessex over Mercia seem like a conquest
, Alfred married Æthelflæd to Æthelred of Mercia and gave his son-in-law the title Ealdorman or Earl of Mercia, thus allowing some ongoing autonomy. Since much of Western Mercia was never under the control of the Danes, and remained strong, this was a prudent move. Further prudence prevailed when the kingdoms were finally absorbed; they were not absorbed into Wessex or greater Wessex but into England. The term Anglo-Saxon
thus reflects King Alfred's diplomatic integration of the Mercians Angles
and the Saxons.
, she was elevated to the status of "Lady of the Mercians". This title was not a nominal position; she was a formidable military leader and tactician. Æthelflæd ruled for approximately eight years (according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
).
The events of her reign are best recorded in the Abington
version of the Chronicle. The earliest ones mainly consist of building burh
s:
910: Bremesbyrig (unidentified).
912: Scergeat (unidentified) and Bridgnorth
.
913: Tamworth
, Stafford
.
914: Eddisbury
, Warwick
.
915: Chirbury
, Weardbyrig (unidentified), Runcorn
.
Subsequently, she engaged in hostile expeditions:
916: into Wales, breaking down Brecenan Mere, perhaps at Llangorse Lake
.
917: capture of the Danish stronghold of Derby
.
918: capture of Leicester
.
She allied herself to her brother Edward the Elder
, whose son Æthelstan she fostered. Together, they steadily pushed the Danes back to the river Humber
. In 918, the York-folk pledged their loyalty to her and she died less than two weeks before the city did its promised homage. Edward the Elder
issued coinage with novel reverses of extraordinary designs, and it is speculated that this series of coinage was for circulation in that part of Mercia under the rule of Edward and his sister, with the design of the coinage perhaps showing the influence of Aethelflaed.
She died at Tamworth
in 918, and was buried at St Peter's Church (now St Oswald's priory) in Gloucester
, a city she had reconstructed from Roman ruins, and laid out the core street plan, which is still in existence today. She was succeeded as lady of the Mercians by her young daughter Ælfwynn.
, the sovereign authority amongst the Anglo-Saxons might descend to a female; or, according to the Anglo-Saxon expression, which the French have adopted, "fall to the spindle side".
However, Ælfwynn was compelled to submit to her mother's brother, King Edward the Elder
of Wessex. The succession of Edward the Elder
finalised the union of the two formerly separate kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia and gives some insight into the emergence of a unified England
.
In this instance, however, the weaker heir was compelled to yield to a more powerful opponent, and one from whom no enmity could have been feared. Ælfwynn was conducted as a captive into Wessex
three weeks before Christmas 919, by her uncle Edward, who was engaged in successful warfare against the Danes; and we do not hear anything more concerning her in history. She seems to have lived the rest of her life in a nunnery.
Æthelflæd ( (869
869
Year 869 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* May 26 – An earthquake and tsunami devastate a large part of the Sanriku coast near Sendai, Japan....
/ 870
870
Year 870 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Prague Castle is founded....
–918
918
Year 918 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* Taebong has been overthrown, and Goryeo established in the Korean peninsula, when Wang Kon ascends the throne at Cheorwon.* The Khitan empire's government occupies a newly walled capital city called Shangjing,...
), was the eldest daughter of King Alfred the Great
Alfred the Great
Alfred the Great was King of Wessex from 871 to 899.Alfred is noted for his defence of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of southern England against the Vikings, becoming the only English monarch still to be accorded the epithet "the Great". Alfred was the first King of the West Saxons to style himself...
of Wessex
Wessex
The Kingdom of Wessex or Kingdom of the West Saxons was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the West Saxons, in South West England, from the 6th century, until the emergence of a united English state in the 10th century, under the Wessex dynasty. It was to be an earldom after Canute the Great's conquest...
and Ealhswith
Ealhswith
Ealhswith or Ealswitha was the daughter of a Mercian nobleman, Æthelred Mucil, Ealdorman of the Gaini. She was married in 868 to Alfred the Great, before he became king of Wessex. In accordance with ninth century West Saxon custom, she was not given the title of queen. -Life:Ealswith was the...
, wife of Æthelred, ealdorman of Mercia, and after his death, ruler of Mercia (911–918). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle styles her "Lady of the Mercians" (Myrcna hlæfdige).
Early career
Æthelflæd is mentioned by King Alfred's biographer AsserAsser
Asser was a Welsh monk from St David's, Dyfed, who became Bishop of Sherborne in the 890s. About 885 he was asked by Alfred the Great to leave St David's and join the circle of learned men whom Alfred was recruiting for his court...
, who calls her the first-born child of Alfred and Ealhswith and a sister to Edward
Edward the Elder
Edward the Elder was an English king. He became king in 899 upon the death of his father, Alfred the Great. His court was at Winchester, previously the capital of Wessex...
, Æthelgifu, Ælfthryth and Æthelweard. By the time he wrote, roughly about the year 890, she was already married to Æthelred, then ealdorman of Mercia.
They had one daughter, Ælfwynn.
Mercia and the Vikings
During a sustained campaign of repeated attack between 865 and 878 the Danish VikingsViking Age
Viking Age is the term for the period in European history, especially Northern European and Scandinavian history, spanning the late 8th to 11th centuries. Scandinavian Vikings explored Europe by its oceans and rivers through trade and warfare. The Vikings also reached Iceland, Greenland,...
overran most of the English Kingdoms
Heptarchy
The Heptarchy is a collective name applied to the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of south, east, and central Great Britain during late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, conventionally identified as seven: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex...
such as Northumbria
Northumbria
Northumbria was a medieval kingdom of the Angles, in what is now Northern England and South-East Scotland, becoming subsequently an earldom in a united Anglo-Saxon kingdom of England. The name reflects the approximate southern limit to the kingdom's territory, the Humber Estuary.Northumbria was...
, Eastern Mercia
Mercia
Mercia was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. It was centred on the valley of the River Trent and its tributaries in the region now known as the English Midlands...
, East Anglia
Kingdom of the East Angles
The Kingdom of East Anglia, also known as the Kingdom of the East Angles , was a small independent Anglo-Saxon kingdom that comprised what are now the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk and perhaps the eastern part of the Fens...
and even threatened the very existence of Wessex. Alfred
Alfred the Great
Alfred the Great was King of Wessex from 871 to 899.Alfred is noted for his defence of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of southern England against the Vikings, becoming the only English monarch still to be accorded the epithet "the Great". Alfred was the first King of the West Saxons to style himself...
and his descendants reconquered these lands from the Danes by 937
Battle of Brunanburh
The Battle of Brunanburh was an English victory in 937 by the army of Æthelstan, King of England, and his brother Edmund over the combined armies of Olaf III Guthfrithson, the Norse-Gael King of Dublin, Constantine II, King of Scots, and Owen I, King of Strathclyde...
. The aid given him in this by Mercia had to be acknowledged. Instead of making the dominion of Wessex over Mercia seem like a conquest
Right of conquest
The right of conquest is the right of a conqueror to territory taken by force of arms. It was traditionally a principle of international law which has in modern times gradually given way until its proscription after the Second World War when the crime of war of aggression was first codified in the...
, Alfred married Æthelflæd to Æthelred of Mercia and gave his son-in-law the title Ealdorman or Earl of Mercia, thus allowing some ongoing autonomy. Since much of Western Mercia was never under the control of the Danes, and remained strong, this was a prudent move. Further prudence prevailed when the kingdoms were finally absorbed; they were not absorbed into Wessex or greater Wessex but into England. The term Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxons
Anglo-Saxon is a term used by historians to designate the Germanic tribes who invaded and settled the south and east of Great Britain beginning in the early 5th century AD, and the period from their creation of the English nation to the Norman conquest. The Anglo-Saxon Era denotes the period of...
thus reflects King Alfred's diplomatic integration of the Mercians Angles
Angles
The Angles is a modern English term for a Germanic people who took their name from the ancestral cultural region of Angeln, a district located in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany...
and the Saxons.
Lady of the Mercians (911–918)
While her husband was alive, she signed agreements, leading some to think that she was the real leader. On her husband's death in 911 after the Battle of TettenhallBattle of Tettenhall
The Battle of Tettenhall took place, according to the Anglo Saxon Chronicle near Tettenhall, on the 5 August 910. The allied forces of Mercia and Wessex met an army of Northumbrian Vikings in Mercia...
, she was elevated to the status of "Lady of the Mercians". This title was not a nominal position; she was a formidable military leader and tactician. Æthelflæd ruled for approximately eight years (according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the Chronicle was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great...
).
The events of her reign are best recorded in the Abington
Abingdon Abbey
Abingdon Abbey was a Benedictine monastery also known as St Mary's Abbey located in Abingdon, historically in the county of Berkshire but now in Oxfordshire, England.-History:...
version of the Chronicle. The earliest ones mainly consist of building burh
Burh
A Burh is an Old English name for a fortified town or other defended site, sometimes centred upon a hill fort though always intended as a place of permanent settlement, its origin was in military defence; "it represented only a stage, though a vitally important one, in the evolution of the...
s:
910: Bremesbyrig (unidentified).
912: Scergeat (unidentified) and Bridgnorth
Bridgnorth
Bridgnorth is a town in Shropshire, England, along the Severn Valley. It is split into Low Town and High Town, named on account of their elevations relative to the River Severn, which separates the upper town on the right bank from the lower on the left...
.
913: Tamworth
Tamworth
Tamworth is a town and local government district in Staffordshire, England, located north-east of Birmingham city centre and north-west of London. The town takes its name from the River Tame, which flows through the town, as does the River Anker...
, Stafford
Stafford
Stafford is the county town of Staffordshire, in the West Midlands region of England. It lies approximately north of Wolverhampton and south of Stoke-on-Trent, adjacent to the M6 motorway Junction 13 to Junction 14...
.
914: Eddisbury
Eddisbury
Eddisbury could be*the Eddisbury in Cheshire, England*the ancient Eddisbury in Cheshire*Eddisbury hill fort in Cheshire*Baron Eddisbury, a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom...
, Warwick
Warwick
Warwick is the county town of Warwickshire, England. The town lies upon the River Avon, south of Coventry and just west of Leamington Spa and Whitnash with which it is conjoined. As of the 2001 United Kingdom census, it had a population of 23,350...
.
915: Chirbury
Chirbury
Chirbury is a village in Shropshire, England, situated close to the Wales-England border. It is about 3 miles east of Montgomery and 7 miles south of Welshpool, at the junction of the A490 and B4386 roads...
, Weardbyrig (unidentified), Runcorn
Runcorn
Runcorn is an industrial town and cargo port within the borough of Halton in the ceremonial county of Cheshire, England. In 2009, its population was estimated to be 61,500. The town is on the southern bank of the River Mersey where the estuary narrows to form Runcorn Gap. Directly to the north...
.
Subsequently, she engaged in hostile expeditions:
916: into Wales, breaking down Brecenan Mere, perhaps at Llangorse Lake
Llangorse Lake
Llangorse Lake is the largest natural lake in south Wales, and is situated in the Brecon Beacons National Park, near to the town of Brecon and the village of Llangors....
.
917: capture of the Danish stronghold of Derby
Derby
Derby , is a city and unitary authority in the East Midlands region of England. It lies upon the banks of the River Derwent and is located in the south of the ceremonial county of Derbyshire. In the 2001 census, the population of the city was 233,700, whilst that of the Derby Urban Area was 229,407...
.
918: capture of Leicester
Leicester
Leicester is a city and unitary authority in the East Midlands of England, and the county town of Leicestershire. The city lies on the River Soar and at the edge of the National Forest...
.
She allied herself to her brother Edward the Elder
Edward the Elder
Edward the Elder was an English king. He became king in 899 upon the death of his father, Alfred the Great. His court was at Winchester, previously the capital of Wessex...
, whose son Æthelstan she fostered. Together, they steadily pushed the Danes back to the river Humber
Humber
The Humber is a large tidal estuary on the east coast of Northern England. It is formed at Trent Falls, Faxfleet, by the confluence of the tidal River Ouse and the tidal River Trent. From here to the North Sea, it forms part of the boundary between the East Riding of Yorkshire on the north bank...
. In 918, the York-folk pledged their loyalty to her and she died less than two weeks before the city did its promised homage. Edward the Elder
Edward the Elder
Edward the Elder was an English king. He became king in 899 upon the death of his father, Alfred the Great. His court was at Winchester, previously the capital of Wessex...
issued coinage with novel reverses of extraordinary designs, and it is speculated that this series of coinage was for circulation in that part of Mercia under the rule of Edward and his sister, with the design of the coinage perhaps showing the influence of Aethelflaed.
She died at Tamworth
Tamworth
Tamworth is a town and local government district in Staffordshire, England, located north-east of Birmingham city centre and north-west of London. The town takes its name from the River Tame, which flows through the town, as does the River Anker...
in 918, and was buried at St Peter's Church (now St Oswald's priory) in Gloucester
Gloucester
Gloucester is a city, district and county town of Gloucestershire in the South West region of England. Gloucester lies close to the Welsh border, and on the River Severn, approximately north-east of Bristol, and south-southwest of Birmingham....
, a city she had reconstructed from Roman ruins, and laid out the core street plan, which is still in existence today. She was succeeded as lady of the Mercians by her young daughter Ælfwynn.
Ælfwynn
The dominion of Mercia descended to Ælfwynn, Æthelflæd's heiress. Chroniclers have noticed the right of Ælfwynn so precisely as to leave no doubt concerning her claim; and this fact is of considerable value in showing that, contrary to the practice of other Germanic peoplesGermanic peoples
The Germanic peoples are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin, identified by their use of the Indo-European Germanic languages which diversified out of Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age.Originating about 1800 BCE from the Corded Ware Culture on the North...
, the sovereign authority amongst the Anglo-Saxons might descend to a female; or, according to the Anglo-Saxon expression, which the French have adopted, "fall to the spindle side".
However, Ælfwynn was compelled to submit to her mother's brother, King Edward the Elder
Edward the Elder
Edward the Elder was an English king. He became king in 899 upon the death of his father, Alfred the Great. His court was at Winchester, previously the capital of Wessex...
of Wessex. The succession of Edward the Elder
Edward the Elder
Edward the Elder was an English king. He became king in 899 upon the death of his father, Alfred the Great. His court was at Winchester, previously the capital of Wessex...
finalised the union of the two formerly separate kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia and gives some insight into the emergence of a unified England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
.
In this instance, however, the weaker heir was compelled to yield to a more powerful opponent, and one from whom no enmity could have been feared. Ælfwynn was conducted as a captive into Wessex
Wessex
The Kingdom of Wessex or Kingdom of the West Saxons was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the West Saxons, in South West England, from the 6th century, until the emergence of a united English state in the 10th century, under the Wessex dynasty. It was to be an earldom after Canute the Great's conquest...
three weeks before Christmas 919, by her uncle Edward, who was engaged in successful warfare against the Danes; and we do not hear anything more concerning her in history. She seems to have lived the rest of her life in a nunnery.
Primary sources
- Asser, Vita Ælfredi, ed. W.H. Stevenson, Asser's Life of King Alfred. Oxford, 1904; tr. S.D. Keynes and M. Lapidge, Alfred the Great. Harmondsworth, 1983.
- Anglo-Saxon ChronicleAnglo-Saxon ChronicleThe Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the Chronicle was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great...
(MSS A, B, C, D and E), ed. D. Dumville and S. Keynes, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. A Collaborative Edition. Vols. 3–7. Cambridge, 1983. - Fragmentary Annals of IrelandFragmentary Annals of IrelandThe Fragmentary Annals of Ireland are a Middle Irish combination of chronicle from various Irish annals and narrative history. They were compiled in the kingdom of Osraige, probably in the lifetime of Donnchad mac Gilla Pátraic , king of Osraige and of king of Leinster.The Fragmentary Annals were...
, ed. and tr. Joan N. Radner, Fragmentary annals of Ireland. Dublin, 1978. - Anglo-Saxon chartersAnglo-Saxon ChartersAnglo-Saxon charters are documents from the early medieval period in Britain which typically make a grant of land or record a privilege. The earliest surviving charters were drawn up in the 670s; the oldest surviving charters granted land to the Church, but from the eighth century surviving...
: S 221(AD 901), S 223 (AD 884 x 901), S 224 (AD 901), S 225 (AD 878 for 915), S 367 (AD 903), S 1280 (AD 904).
Secondary sources
- Sir Francis Palgrave. History of the Anglo-Saxons. 1876. Paperback edition on Senate. p. 164.
Further reading
- Costambeys, Marios. 2004. "Æthelflæd (d. 918)." In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press.
- Wainwright, F.T. 1975. "Æthelflæd, lady of the Mercians." Scandinavian England. 305–24.
- Szarmach, P.R. 1998. "Æðelflæd of Mercia, mise en page." In Words and works: studies in medieval English language and literature in honour of Fred C. Robinson, ed. P.S. Baker and N. Howe. 105–26.
- Keynes, Simon. 1998. "King Alfred and the Mercians." In Kings, currency and alliances: history and coinage of southern England in the ninth century, ed. M.A.S. Blackburn and D.N. Dumville. 1–46.
- Ian W. Walker. 2001. Mercia and the Making of England.
- Sir Frank Stenton. Anglo-Saxon England (2001)
- Justin Pollard. Alfred the Great: the Man Who Made England (2005)
- Don Stansbury. The Lady Who Fought Vikings (1993)
- Jane Wolfe. Aethelflaed: Royal Lady, War Lady (2001)
- C. Heighway and R. Bryant. The Golden Minster (1999)
Popular culture
- Haley Elizabeth Garwood, Swords across the Thames, Bruceton Mills, 1999. ISBN 978-0965972185
- Penny Ingham, 'The King's Daughter' published by Cava Books, 2010. ISBN 978-0-9555997. A novel about Aethelflaed, previously published as "Lady of the Mercians.
- Rebecca Tingle, Far Traveler, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 2005. ISBN 0-3992389-0-5: A semi-fictional account of the life of Aelfwynn
- Bernard CornwellBernard CornwellBernard Cornwell OBE is an English author of historical novels. He is best known for his novels about Napoleonic Wars rifleman Richard Sharpe which were adapted into a series of Sharpe television films.-Biography:...
's The Saxon StoriesThe Saxon StoriesThe Saxon Tales is a continuing historical novel series written by the historical novelist Bernard Cornwell about 9th century Britain. The protagonist of the series is Uhtred Ragnarson, sometimes known as Uhtred Uhtredson. Uhtred is born in Northumbria, but captured and adopted by the Danes...
series of books features her, most prominently in Sword SongSword Song (novel)Sword Song is the fourth in the bestselling Saxon Stories series from historical novelist Bernard Cornwell. The protagonist, Uhtred, holds the fate of Wessex in his sword again and the book follows Alfred's efforts to protect Wessex and unite England...
(2007 ISBN 978-0007219711) and The Burning LandThe Burning LandThe Burning Land is a novel based in the 9th century Anglo-Saxon kingdoms Wessex, Northumbria and Mercia. It is the fifth book in Bernard Cornwell's Saxon Tales series, and starts where Sword Song left off.-Plot summary:...
(2009 ISBN 978-0-00-721975-9). - Rebecca Tingle'sThe Edge on the Sword is a story about the teenage Æthelflæd.
- Chris Kirwan, Chris Kirwan's novel Shadowers Crossing (2008 ISBN 978-0-9558709-0-3) features Ethelfleda's final, successful fortification at Castle Rock, Runcorn, in AD 915.