CERGE-EI
Encyclopedia
CERGE-EI is an academic institution
Academic institution
Academic institution is an educational institution dedicated to education and research, which grants academic degrees. See also academy and university.- Types of academic institutions include :...

 that provides an American-style PhD
PHD
PHD may refer to:*Ph.D., a doctorate of philosophy*Ph.D. , a 1980s British group*PHD finger, a protein sequence*PHD Mountain Software, an outdoor clothing and equipment company*PhD Docbook renderer, an XML renderer...

 program in economics
Economics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...

, a US-chartered Master of Arts
Master of Arts (postgraduate)
A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...

 program in Applied Economics
Applied economics
Applied economics is a term that refers to the application of economic theory and analysis. While not a field of economics, it is typically characterized by the application of economic theory and econometrics to address practical issues in a range of fields including labour economics, industrial...

 (the MAE program), and the UPCES study abroad program. CERGE-EI also conducts research in theoretical and policy-related economics. The institution is located in the Schebek Palace in the historical center of Prague
Prague
Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of over 2.3 million...

, the Czech Republic
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Poland to the northeast, Slovakia to the east, Austria to the south, and Germany to the west and northwest....

.

The CERGE-EI acronym stands for Center for Economic Research and Graduate Education – Economics Institute. CERGE-EI is a joint workplace (partnership) of two separate entities: the Center for Economic Research and Graduate Education of Charles University in Prague and the Economics Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
The Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic was established in 1992 by the Czech National Council as the Czech successor of the former Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. The Academy is the leading non-university public research institution in the Czech Republic...

. CERGE-EI is also a New York State Education Department
New York State Education Department
The New York State Education Department is the state education department in New York. It is part of the University of the State of New York , one of the most complete, interconnected systems of educational services in the United States...

 entity with a permanent charter for its degree-granting educational programs awarded by the New York State Board of Regents
Board of Regents
In the United States, a board often governs public institutions of higher education, which include both state universities and community colleges. In each US state, such boards may govern either the state university system, individual colleges and universities, or both. In general they operate as...

. The center was founded in 1991 by a group that included Jan Švejnar
Jan Švejnar
Jan Švejnar is a USA-based, Czech-born economist. He was an unsuccessful candidate for the 2008 election of the President of the Czech Republic....

 and Jozef Zieleniec with a goal to educate a new generation of economists from post-communist countries. Today students come to study at CERGE-EI from Central
Central Europe
Central Europe or alternatively Middle Europe is a region of the European continent lying between the variously defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe...

 and Eastern Europe
Eastern Europe
Eastern Europe is the eastern part of Europe. The term has widely disparate geopolitical, geographical, cultural and socioeconomic readings, which makes it highly context-dependent and even volatile, and there are "almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region"...

, Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...

 and the former Soviet republics, Central Asia
Central Asia
Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...

, and other countries. The institution is recognized as one of the top economics institutes in Europe.

Mission

The goals and interests which serve as CERGE-EI’s mission are:
  • to train future public officials, business leaders, and university faculty and researchers mainly from transition and developing countries in modern economics;
  • to stimulate and support academic and policy-oriented economic research;
  • to disseminate research and policy information to government officials, corporate managers, and academic economists throughout the region and the world through seminars, symposia, conferences, working papers, and other publications; and
  • to facilitate the transfer of modern western standards of economic instruction and scientific work to Central and Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and beyond with a special emphasis on educating the instructors of future generations of business leaders and voters.

CERGE-EI's academic community

The institution’s student body of approximately 120 students is drawn from over 30 countries, primarily from Central and Eastern Europe and the post-Soviet states. The permanent faculty of CERGE-EI is currently composed of 20 scholars. Most faculty members have earned their PhD
PHD
PHD may refer to:*Ph.D., a doctorate of philosophy*Ph.D. , a 1980s British group*PHD finger, a protein sequence*PHD Mountain Software, an outdoor clothing and equipment company*PhD Docbook renderer, an XML renderer...

 in economics from U.S. and Western European universities. New faculty members are recruited via international job market for academic economists . The working language of the institution is English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...

.

The MA/PhD program

The PhD
PHD
PHD may refer to:*Ph.D., a doctorate of philosophy*Ph.D. , a 1980s British group*PHD finger, a protein sequence*PHD Mountain Software, an outdoor clothing and equipment company*PhD Docbook renderer, an XML renderer...

 program is designed in line with the US model of graduate education in economics. It consists of demanding two years of coursework followed by two or more years of supervised dissertation research. Courses include Microeconomics
Microeconomics
Microeconomics is a branch of economics that studies the behavior of how the individual modern household and firms make decisions to allocate limited resources. Typically, it applies to markets where goods or services are being bought and sold...

, Macroeconomics
Macroeconomics
Macroeconomics is a branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the whole economy. This includes a national, regional, or global economy...

, Econometrics
Econometrics
Econometrics has been defined as "the application of mathematics and statistical methods to economic data" and described as the branch of economics "that aims to give empirical content to economic relations." More precisely, it is "the quantitative analysis of actual economic phenomena based on...

 in the first, and a choice of elective subjects in the second year. A Master of Arts
Master of Arts (postgraduate)
A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...

 (MA) degree is awarded to students who successfully complete the two years of coursework. CERGE-EI students frequently conduct part of their dissertation research at partner universities in Western Europe and North America. The dissertation usually consists of three scientific papers.

CERGE-EI is accredited by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic and has a permanent charter from The Board of Regents of the New York State Education Department
New York State Education Department
The New York State Education Department is the state education department in New York. It is part of the University of the State of New York , one of the most complete, interconnected systems of educational services in the United States...

. The New York State Board granted CERGE-EI's permanent charter to award PhD and MA degrees in economics in 2005, following a temporary charter awarded in 2001.

CERGE-EI graduates are employed by international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund is an organization of 187 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world...

, World Bank
World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...

, OECD or the EBRD, universities (for example Kellogg School of Management
Kellogg School of Management
The Kellogg School of Management is the business school of Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, downtown Chicago, Illinois and Miami, Florida. Kellogg offers full-time, part-time, and executive programs, as well as partnering programs with schools in China, India, Hong Kong, Israel,...

, Sauder School of Business
Sauder School of Business
The Sauder School of Business is a business school at the University of British Columbia located in the University Endowment Lands, just west of the city limits of Vancouver, Canada...

, Tilburg University, or University of Bonn
University of Bonn
The University of Bonn is a public research university located in Bonn, Germany. Founded in its present form in 1818, as the linear successor of earlier academic institutions, the University of Bonn is today one of the leading universities in Germany. The University of Bonn offers a large number...

) consulting firms, private financial institutions, and regional central banks and ministries.

Mobility

CERGE-EI helps students whose academic careers would benefit from staying at another institution to visit a top university in the United States or Western Europe.

Institutions hosting CERGE-EI students during their mobility stay include:

  • Bocconi University
    Bocconi University
    Bocconi University is a private university located in central Milan, beside Parco Ravizza. Bocconi provides undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate education, in addition to a range of double degree programs, in the fields of economics, management, finance and law. According to many university...

  • Boston University
    Boston University
    Boston University is a private research university located in Boston, Massachusetts. With more than 4,000 faculty members and more than 31,000 students, Boston University is one of the largest private universities in the United States and one of Boston's largest employers...

  • California Institute of Technology
    California Institute of Technology
    The California Institute of Technology is a private research university located in Pasadena, California, United States. Caltech has six academic divisions with strong emphases on science and engineering...

  • Columbia University
    Columbia University
    Columbia University in the City of New York is a private, Ivy League university in Manhattan, New York City. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York, the fifth oldest in the United States, and one of the country's nine Colonial Colleges founded before the...

  • Harvard University
    Harvard University
    Harvard University is a private Ivy League university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation chartered in the country...

  • Institute of Advanced Studies (Vienna)
    Institute of Advanced Studies (Vienna)
    The Institute of Advanced Studies in Vienna, Austria is an independent research institute. It was founded in 1963 by Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Oskar Morgenstern, with the help of the Ford Foundation, the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, and the City of Vienna...

  • National Bureau of Economic Research
    National Bureau of Economic Research
    The National Bureau of Economic Research is an American private nonprofit research organization "committed to undertaking and disseminating unbiased economic research among public policymakers, business professionals, and the academic community." The NBER is well known for providing start and end...

  • New York University
    New York University
    New York University is a private, nonsectarian research university based in New York City. NYU's main campus is situated in the Greenwich Village section of Manhattan...

  • Princeton University
    Princeton University
    Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and is one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution....

  • Stanford University
    Stanford University
    The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...

  • Tilburg University
  • Tinbergen Institute
    Tinbergen Institute
    The Tinbergen Institute is a joint institute for economic research of the University of Amsterdam, the Vrije Universiteit and the Erasmus University...

  • Universite Libre de Bruxelles
    Université Libre de Bruxelles
    The Université libre de Bruxelles is a French-speaking university in Brussels, Belgium. It has 21,000 students, 29% of whom come from abroad, and an equally cosmopolitan staff.-Name:...

  • University College London
    University College London
    University College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom and the oldest and largest constituent college of the federal University of London...

  • University of California at Berkeley
  • University of Cambridge
    University of Cambridge
    The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally...

  • University of Essex
    University of Essex
    The University of Essex is a British campus university whose original and largest campus is near the town of Colchester, England. Established in 1963 and receiving its Royal Charter in 1965...

  • University of Michigan
    University of Michigan
    The University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...

  • University of Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne
  • University of Pittsburgh
    University of Pittsburgh
    The University of Pittsburgh, commonly referred to as Pitt, is a state-related research university located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. Founded as Pittsburgh Academy in 1787 on what was then the American frontier, Pitt is one of the oldest continuously chartered institutions of...

  • University of Toronto
    University of Toronto
    The University of Toronto is a public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, situated on the grounds that surround Queen's Park. It was founded by royal charter in 1827 as King's College, the first institution of higher learning in Upper Canada...

  • University of Pennsylvania
    University of Pennsylvania
    The University of Pennsylvania is a private, Ivy League university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Penn is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States,Penn is the fourth-oldest using the founding dates claimed by each institution...



Financial aid

Many students admitted to the MA/PhD program are granted tuition waivers for the first two years of study. Almost all students who continue in the PhD program after the first two years are granted tuition waivers
Waiver
A waiver is the voluntary relinquishment or surrender of some known right or privilege.While a waiver is often in writing, sometimes a person's actions can act as a waiver. An example of a written waiver is a disclaimer, which becomes a waiver when accepted...

.

With the exception of first-year, first-semester students, students receiving a stipend are typically required to fulfill an assistantship (such as a research assistantship
Research assistant
A research assistant is a researcher employed, often on a temporary contract, by a university or a research institute, for the purpose of assisting in academic research...

 or teaching assistantship
Teaching assistant
A teaching assistant is an individual who assists a professor or teacher with instructional responsibilities. TAs include graduate teaching assistants , who are graduate students; undergraduate teaching assistants , who are undergraduate students; secondary school TAs, who are either high school...

) each month as part of their study program. Fifth-year students receive funding in the form of a salary through employment as Junior Economic Institute Researchers (JEIRs). Selected third- and fourth-year students are eligible for this form of support as well.

Academic Skills Center

Since application to the graduate program at CERGE-EI is not conditioned on the TOEFL
TOEFL
The Test of English as a Foreign Language, or TOEFL , evaluates the ability of an individual to use and understand English in an academic setting....

 or any other English language exam, the institution established a center where students can work on their language and academic skills. During the first two years the students receive assistance in the form of mandatory courses while later during their stay at CERGE EI students can receive academic language assistance with tasks such as writing the dissertation.

The MAE program

The MAE program is a one-year, three-semester Master of Arts
Master of Arts (postgraduate)
A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...

 program in Applied Economics
Applied economics
Applied economics is a term that refers to the application of economic theory and analysis. While not a field of economics, it is typically characterized by the application of economic theory and econometrics to address practical issues in a range of fields including labour economics, industrial...

. The entire program is conducted in English, including professional English language courses (English for Academic Purposes
English for Academic Purposes
English for academic purposes entails training students, usually in a higher education setting, to use language appropriately for study. It is a challenging and multi-faceted area within the wider field of English language learning and teaching , and is one of the most common forms of English for...

 courses). The academic degree
Academic degree
An academic degree is a position and title within a college or university that is usually awarded in recognition of the recipient having either satisfactorily completed a prescribed course of study or having conducted a scholarly endeavour deemed worthy of his or her admission to the degree...

 program is run under the charter granted by the Board of Regents
Board of Regents
In the United States, a board often governs public institutions of higher education, which include both state universities and community colleges. In each US state, such boards may govern either the state university system, individual colleges and universities, or both. In general they operate as...

 of the New York State Education Department
New York State Education Department
The New York State Education Department is the state education department in New York. It is part of the University of the State of New York , one of the most complete, interconnected systems of educational services in the United States...

 (University of the State of New York
University of the State of New York
The University of the State of New York is the State of New York's governmental umbrella organization responsible for most institutions and people in any way connected with formal educational functions, public and private, in New York State...

), and therefore it is a U.S. degree. The Applied Economics Master of Arts degree qualifies students to take well-paid international professional positions as analysts, consultants, and economists in private companies, financial institutions and consulting firms, banks, and government ministries.

UPCES Study Abroad in Prague Program

In 2001, CERGE-EI and Charles University established the Undergraduate Program in Central European Studies (UPCES). UPCES is a study abroad
Study abroad
Studying abroad is the act of a student pursuing educational opportunities in a country other than one's own. This can include primary, secondary and post-secondary students...

 program in Prague geared toward North American undergraduate students. The program is headquartered in the CERGE-EI Schebek Palace in the center of downtown Prague. UPCES offers a variety of accredited, semester-long courses in the humanities and social sciences. All courses are taught by a faculty of scholars, artists, and industry leaders. Classes are small and include Czech and other European students.

Teaching fellows

Since 2007, CERGE-EI has supported advanced graduate students and recent PhDs from is own student body as well as other western-oriented programs in the region to serve as instructors in undergraduate programs. As of the spring of 2011 over 20,000 students in 31 institutions and 11 countries have been received instruction in modern economics from Fellows in this program. More information can be found here.

Research

The Social Science Research Network
Social Science Research Network
The Social Science Research Network is a website devoted to the rapid dissemination of scholarly research in the social sciences and humanities. SSRN is viewed as particularly strong in the fields of economics, finance, accounting, management, and law. SSRN was founded in 1994 by Michael Jensen ...

 (SSRN) in its ranking of the Top Economics Departments and Research Centers, has placed CERGE-EI as No. 58 out of 1,236 institutions worldwide. Research Papers in Economics
Research Papers in Economics
Research Papers in Economics is a collaborative effort of hundreds of volunteers in 57 countries to enhance the dissemination of research in economics. The heart of the project is a decentralized database of working papers, preprints, journal articles and software components. The project started...

 (RePEc) has ranked CERGE-EI in the top 6 percent of economics departments/research institutions in Europe.

The permanent and visiting faculty of CERGE-EI is currently composed of scholars from the Czech Republic, Slovakia
Slovakia
The Slovak Republic is a landlocked state in Central Europe. It has a population of over five million and an area of about . Slovakia is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east and Hungary to the south...

, Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...

, Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...

, Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....

, Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...

, Croatia
Croatia
Croatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers ...

 and the United States.
CERGE-EI visiting faculty are part-time lecturers and dissertation committee members who regularly visit CERGE-EI. Some of the home universities of visiting faculty are University of Michigan
University of Michigan
The University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...

, University of California, Berkeley
University of California, Berkeley
The University of California, Berkeley , is a teaching and research university established in 1868 and located in Berkeley, California, USA...

, Bonn University and City University of New York
City University of New York
The City University of New York is the public university system of New York City, with its administrative offices in Yorkville in Manhattan. It is the largest urban university in the United States, consisting of 23 institutions: 11 senior colleges, six community colleges, the William E...

.

In addition to education, CERGE-EI stimulates and supports advanced economic research. Faculty members and advanced students regularly publish papers in international peer-refereed journals
Academic journal
An academic journal is a peer-reviewed periodical in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as forums for the introduction and presentation for scrutiny of new research, and the critique of existing research...

. In the 1990s, CERGE-EI has built significant reputation in research on the economics of transition. As the post-communist countries developed into market economies, the research interests of CERGE-EI faculty and students have expanded to other areas of economics, such as dynamic macroeconomic
Macroeconomics
Macroeconomics is a branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the whole economy. This includes a national, regional, or global economy...

 theory, experimental economics
Experimental economics
Experimental economics is the application of experimental methods to study economic questions. Data collected in experiments are used to estimate effect size, test the validity of economic theories, and illuminate market mechanisms. Economic experiments usually use cash to motivate subjects, in...

, labor
Labour economics
Labor economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the market for labor. Labor markets function through the interaction of workers and employers...

 and public economics, and many others.

CERGE-EI publishes an in-house working paper
Working paper
A working paper or work paper or workpaper may refer to:*A preliminary scientific or technical paper. Often, authors will release working papers to share ideas about a topic or to elicit feedback before submitting to a peer reviewed conference or academic journal.* Sometimes the term working paper...

 series, organizes regular research seminars at which academics from universities around the world present their current papers (including several Nobel laureates), hosts professional conferences, and houses the largest economics library in Central and Eastern Europe..

GDN

CERGE-EI is the Central and East European Regional Network representative for the Global Development Network
Global Development Network
The idea of a Global Development Network was conceived at a meeting organized by The World Bank in Washington in May 1997. Participants included the heads of GDN's regional network partners and representatives of various bilateral and multilateral organizations and academic associations including...

 (GDN) and maintains the regional window on GDNet. Through the GDN program, CERGE-EI awards approximately 25 research grants to promising young social scientists from throughout Central Europe. These grants also include extensive mentoring by senior scholars.

Funding

CERGE-EI is financed by educational and research grants
Research funding
Research funding is a term generally covering any funding for scientific research, in the areas of both "hard" science and technology and social science. The term often connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most...

 from the Czech government, by grants
Research funding
Research funding is a term generally covering any funding for scientific research, in the areas of both "hard" science and technology and social science. The term often connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most...

 from other Czech and foreign entities, as well as private donations from individuals, foundations, and corporations. The fundraising activities are carried out by two affiliated institutions, CERGE-EI Foundation U.S.A. and Nadace CERGE-EI. Some funding also comes from student tuition payments.

Governance

CERGE-EI is governed by an Executive and Supervisory Committee (ESC), which makes major strategic and financial decisions, supervises local management, and makes decisions on the hiring and promotion of faculty members. The ESC is composed of internationally recognized scholars in the field of economics, representatives of Charles University and the Academy of Sciences
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
The Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic was established in 1992 by the Czech National Council as the Czech successor of the former Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. The Academy is the leading non-university public research institution in the Czech Republic...

, and tenured faculty members of CERGE-EI.

Student life and culture

Majority of CERGE-EI students live in student dormitories located in Prague. CERGE-EI students are given a Charles University ID card - International Student Identity Card
International Student Identity Card
The International Student Identity Card is a photo identification card that identifies the holder as a full-time student. It is currently a form of identification that is internationally recognized .Cardholders gain access to special discounts with many companies, particularly on travel-related...

 (ISIC) that enables them to use a number of discounts and purchase meals in menzas with discounted prices.
Social life of CERGE-EI students revolves around sport events, such as: softball; squash; volleyball practices on Thursdays. Other events at CERGE-EI are barbecue parties in the school’s yard; wine tasting and beer parties every semester. Starting from 2010, a photo contest is organized annually.

Sports

Squash is a popular winter sport among students and from 2009 students organize squash tournament. During spring and summer, softball is a popular sport among students.
"The Invisible Hands" is the CERGE-EI softball team that Richard Stock (Assistant Professor) started in the fall of 2000. In the first informal meeting about the team, Prof. Randall K. Filer
Randall K. Filer
Randall K. Filer is an American economist. Dr. Filer is a Professor of Economics at Hunter College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York and a Visiting Professor of Economics and Senior Scholar at CERGE-EI...

suggested the “The invisible Hands” as a joke, and it stuck until today. In the spring of 2007 CERGE-EI placed in the top three teams of Prague Charity Softball tournament. CERGE-EI participates at the tournament every year.

External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
 
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