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Brownfield land
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Brownfields are abandoned or underused industrial and commercial facilities available for re-use. Expansion or redevelopment of such a facility may be complicated by real or perceived environmental contaminations.
In United States city planning, brownfield land (or simply a brownfield) is land previously used for industrial purposes or certain commercial uses. The land may be contaminated by low concentrations of hazardous waste or pollution, and has the potential to be reused once it is cleaned up.
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Encyclopedia
Brownfields are abandoned or underused industrial and commercial facilities available for re-use. Expansion or redevelopment of such a facility may be complicated by real or perceived environmental contaminations.
In United States city planning, brownfield land (or simply a brownfield) is land previously used for industrial purposes or certain commercial uses. The land may be contaminated by low concentrations of hazardous waste or pollution, and has the potential to be reused once it is cleaned up. Land that is more severely contaminated and has high concentrations of hazardous waste or pollution, such as a Superfund site, does not fall under the brownfield classification. Mothballed brownfields are properties in which the owners are "not willing to transfer the brownfield or put it into productive reuse".
In the United Kingdom and Australia, the term applies more generally to previously used land.
U.S. perspective
The term brownfields first came into use on June 28, 1992, at a U.S. congressional field hearing hosted by the Northeast Midwest Congressional Coalition. Also in 1992, the first detailed policy analysis of the issue was convened by the Cuyahoga County Planning Commission. The United States Environmental Protection Agency selected Cuyahoga County as its first brownfield pilot project in September 1993.
Locations
Generally, brownfield sites exist in a city's or town's industrial section, on mountains containing abandoned factories or commercial buildings, or other previously polluting operations. Small brownfields also may be found in many older residential neighborhoods. For example, many dry cleaning establishments or gas stations produced high levels of subsurface contaminants during prior operations, and the land they occupy might sit idle for decades as a brownfield.
Typical contaminants found on contaminated brownfield land include hydrocarbon spillages, solvents, pesticides, heavy metals such as lead (e.g., paints), tributyltins, and asbestos. Old maps may assist in identifying areas to be tested.
Innovative brownfields redevelopment strategies
A number of innovative financial and remediation techniques have been employed in the U.S. in recent years to expedite the cleanup of brownfield sites. For example, some environmental firms have teamed up with insurance companies to underwrite the cleanup of distressed brownfield properties and provide a guaranteed cleanup cost for a specific brownfield property, to limit land developers' exposure to environmental remediation costs and pollution lawsuits. The environmental firm first performs an extensive investigation of the brownfield site to ensure that the guaranteed cleanup cost is reasonable and they will not wind up with any surprises.
After the dot-com bubble of 2000, many venture capital firms looking for new businesses in which to invest have done so in brownfields. Venture capital investments in brownfield-related businesses have included companies developing new cleanup technology, companies that do remediation, and development projects in brownfield lands.
Innovative remedial techniques employed at distressed brownfield properties in recent years include bioremediation, a remedial strategy that uses naturally occurring microbes in soils and groundwater to expedite a cleanup, and in situ oxidation, which is a remedial strategy that uses oxygen or oxidant chemicals to enhance a cleanup. Often, these strategies are used in conjunction with each other or with other remedial strategies such as soil vapor extraction. In this process, vapor from the soil phase is extracted from soils and treated, which has the effect of removing contaminants from the soils and groundwater beneath a site. Some brownfields with heavy metal contamination have even been cleaned up through an innovative approach called phytoremediation that utilizes deep-rooted plants to soak up metals in soils into the plant structure as the plant grows. After they reach maturity, the plants – which now contain the heavy metal contaminants in their tissues – are removed and disposed of as hazardous waste.
Research is under way to see if some brownfields can be used to grow crops, specifically for the production of biofuels. Michigan State University, in collaboration with DaimlerChrysler and NextEnergy, has small plots of soybean, corn, canola, and switchgrass growing in a former industrial dump site in Oakland County, Michigan. The intent is to see if the plants can serve two purposes simultaneously: assist with phytoremediation, and contribute to the economical production of biodiesel and/or ethanol fuel.
Post-redevelopment uses
Some state governments restrict development of brownfield sites to particular uses in order to minimize exposure to leftover contaminants on-site after the cleanup is completed; such properties are deed-restricted in their future usage. Some legally require that such areas are reused for housing or for new commercial use in order not to destroy further arable land. The redevelopment of brownfield sites is a significant part of new urbanism. Some brownfields are left as green spaces for recreational uses.
For historical reasons, many brownfield sites are close to important thoroughfares such as highways and rivers; their reclamation can therefore be a major asset to a city. Portland, Oregon, has pioneered the use of road and rail infrastructure to support the cleanup and reuse of brownfield sites. Another example is the Atlantic Station project in Atlanta, the largest brownfield redevelopment in the United States. In Seattle, rusted remains of a gas factory were left in place to add character to Gas Works Park.
But one of the most well-known areas in the United States for brownfield redevelopment is Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which has successfully converted numerous former steel mill sites into high-end residential, shopping and offices. Several examples of brownfield redevelopment in Pittsburgh include the following:
- In Homestead, Pennsylvania, where the site once occupied by Carnegie Steel has been converted into a successful commercial center, The Waterfront.
- In Pittsburgh's Squirrel Hill neighborhood, where a former slag dump for steel mills was turned into a $243 million residential development called Summerset at Frick Park.
- In the South Side neighborhood, where a former LTV steel mill site was transformed into Southside Works, a mixed use development that includes high-end entertainment, retail, offices, and housing.
- In the Hazelwood (Pittsburgh) neighborhood, where a former Jones and Laughlin steel mill site was transformed into a $104 million office park called Pittsburgh Technology Center.
- In Herr's Island, a island on the western bank of the Allegheny River, where a former rail stop for livestock and meatpacking were transformed into Washington's Landing, a waterfront center for commerce, manufacturing, recreation and upscale housing.
Brownfields
Regulation
In the United States, investigation and cleanup of brownfield sites is largely regulated by state environmental agencies in cooperation with the EPA. Many of the most important provisions on liability relief are contained in state codes that can differ significantly from state to state. The EPA, together with local and national government, can provide technical assistance and some funding for assessment and cleanup of designated sites, as well as tax incentives for cleanup that is not paid for outright (specifically, cleanup costs are fully deductible in the year they are incurred).
Barriers to redevelopment
Many contaminated brownfield sites sit idle and unused for decades because the cost of cleaning them to safe standards is more than the land would be worth after redevelopment. However, redevelopment of brownfield sites has become more common in the first decade of the 21st century, as developable land grows less available in highly populated areas. Also, the methods of studying contaminated land have become more sophisticated and established.
Many federal and state programs have been developed to assist developers interested in cleaning up brownfield sites and restoring them to practical uses. Some states and localities have spent considerable money assessing the contamination present on local brownfield sites, to quantify the cleanup costs in an effort to move the brownfield redevelopment process forward.
In the process of cleaning contaminated brownfield sites, surprises are sometimes encountered, such as previously unknown underground storage tanks, buried drums or buried railroad tank cars containing wastes. When unexpected circumstances arise, the cost for cleaning up the brownfield land increases, and as a result, the cleanup work is either delayed or stopped entirely. To avoid unexpected contamination and increased costs, many developers insist that a site be thoroughly investigated (via a Phase II Site Investigation or Remedial Investigation) prior to commencing remedial cleanup activities.
Valuation
Acquisition, adaptive re-use, and disposal of a brownfield sites requires advanced and specialized appraisal analysis techniques. For example, the highest and best use of the brownfield site may be affected by the contamination, both pre- and post-remediation. Additionally, the value should take into account residual stigma and potential for third-party liability. Normal appraisal techniques frequently fail, and appraisers must rely on more advanced techniques, such as contingent valuation, case studies, or statistical analyses.
Global perspective
(Much of this section is taken from the International Economic Development Council's paper, .)
Approaches to brownfield redeveloment varies across international boundaries depending on issues such as land availability and demand, population density, historic preservation priorities, and local/national government policies.
Canada
In Canada, the most commonly accepted definition for brownfield land comes from the National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy's 2003 publication Cleaning up the Past, Building the Future: A National Brownfield Redevelopment Strategy for Canada, in which brownfields are "abandoned, idle or underutilized commercial or industrial properties where past actions have caused known or suspected environmental contamination, but where there is an active potential for redevelopment".
Unlike many U.S. cities, Canadian urban areas have not suffered greatly from suburban flight or general decline, and residential living at the city-center remains high throughout Canada. This translates into a high demand – and thus high market value – for urban land at the city center. Brownfield redevelopment has benefitted from this, stimulating private sector solutions that frequently preempt the need for government solutions. As such, the Canadian federal government does not provide funding or financial incentives for brownfield projects. However, Ontario does provide tax incentives and Quebec provides some funding assistance. At the municipal level, some cities provide encouragement. For example, the Toronto Economic Development Corporation through WATERFRONToronto assists the private sector by investing in adaptively reused brownfield sites. Large Brownfield sites still exist in Canada, such as the Port Lands and sections of Harbourfront in Toronto, which despite some active industrial uses remains largely vacant land. There have been ongoing discussions and inititiaves put forth for decades for non-industrial redevelopment however, minimal progress has been made. Currently, the biggest destimulus to brownfield redevelopment in Canada is the lack of any liability protection for subsequent purchasers who take on redevelopment. However, this is at least partially addressed by some local initiatives, such as Bill 56 in Ontario, which may provide some liability relief.
An additional aspect to brownfield land management is the nature of Crown land in Canadian provinces. Provincial governments are responsible for the stewardship of Crown (public) land and are held accountable to ensure that threats to public health and safety are mitigated; including the responsibility of brownfields and contaminated lands. The provinces of Ontario, Quebec, and British Columbia are leading brownfield remediation and redevelopment efforts through "good housekeeping" practises of remediating their inventory of Crown contaminated land.
UK
In the United Kingdom, brownfield land and contaminated land are seen as discrete concepts in terms of government policy and the law, though of course a given piece of land may be both at once. The more formal term for brownfields is "previously developed land" (PDL), the definition of which talks of it being vacant, derelict or underused. It may not have been industrial in the past, and it may or may not be contaminated.
The government has a target that 60% of new housing development must be on PDL, and the overall aim in the country is to recycle PDL in preference to taking greenfield sites.
In England, government agencies like the Regional Development Agencies and English Partnerships help secure and support the regeneration of run-down areas including those hit by industrial decline and dereliction, and market conditions. One example from the 1980s is the former Merseyside Development Corporation and its work on the Liverpool International Garden Festival.
Contaminated land is dealt with as a separate issue, both through the development control system (concerned to ensure contaminated land is made suitable for its new use) and by Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (which looks at land in the context of its current use).
Both regimes are concerned with the risk that the presence of contaminants may pose to human health or the environment, and ensuring that risk is identified properly and managed down to acceptable levels. Under Part IIA, each local authority must inspect its area for "contaminated land" as defined by the Act, and where it is found must secure its remediation, with the original polluters first in line to pay where these can be found, in line with the "polluter pays principle".
Brownfield land that has been left to naturally re-vegetate is often of high nature conservation interest — much more so than equivalent agricultural land — due to the presence of early successional habitats. A number of invertebrate species are associated with such sites, for example the Dingy Skipper butterfly, and these have suffered dramatic declines in recent years due to losses in brownfield sites due to development and regeneration.
Netherlands
The Netherlands has an aggressive approach to the adaptive reuse of brownfields. The national government directs funds and support to priority sites, and acts with local agencies to establish a holistic set of priorities relating to housing, transportation, and the quality of life. Properties which fall outside the Dutch government's initiatives are also influenced through funding and other incentives. National funds are prioritized for contaminated sites which suffer from serious contamination or have an urgent need for remediation. A risk-based corrective action program is applied which takes into account future land use. The government classifies potential land use into one of four categories:
- Residential and recreational "green" areas,
- Non-recreational green areas,
- Built-up and paved areas, and
- Agricultural and nature.
The concept of using only four broad categories encourages what the Dutch call "largeness of scale", to avoid a "patchwork quilt of soil qualities".
Germany
The unique post-Cold War experience of this country is the key force shaping its approach to brownfields. In the past two decades, since the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Germans have been faced with two critical brownfield-related problems:
- Outmoded military facilities and former state-owned industries
- The general decline in coal, steel, and textiles.
As a result, the focus of German brownfield activity has been toward these sites and certain model projects, such as Emscher Park.
See also
External links
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