Solvent
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	Topics Solvent Topic Home A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in a solution Solution In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.... . The most common solvent in everyday life is water Water Water is a common chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of life. In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or States of matter, but the substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor or steam.... . Most other commonly-used solvents are organic Organic chemistry Organic chemistry is a discipline within chemistry which involves the science study of the structure, properties, composition, chemical reaction, and preparation of chemical compounds that contain carbon....  (carbon Carbon Carbon is a chemical element with chemical symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalence?making four electrons available to form covalent bond chemical bonds.... -containing) chemicals. These are called organic solvents. Solvents usually have a low boiling point Boiling point The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid....  and evaporate Evaporation Evaporation is the slow vaporization of a liquid and the reverse of condensation. A type of phase transition, it is the process by which molecules in a liquid State of matter spontaneously become gaseous ....  easily or can be removed by distillation Distillation Distillation is a method of separation process mixtures based on differences in their Volatility in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction.... , leaving the dissolved substance behind. To distinguish between solutes and solvents, solvents are usually present in the greater amount. Discussion Ask a question about 'Solvent' Start a new discussion about 'Solvent' Answer questions from other users Full Discussion Forum Recent Posts Can anybody tell me if Odourless Solvent is less toxic than Mineral Turpentine from which it is made... Encyclopedia A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in a solution Solution In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.... . The most common solvent in everyday life is water Water Water is a common chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of life. In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or States of matter, but the substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor or steam.... . Most other commonly-used solvents are organic Organic chemistry Organic chemistry is a discipline within chemistry which involves the science study of the structure, properties, composition, chemical reaction, and preparation of chemical compounds that contain carbon....  (carbon Carbon Carbon is a chemical element with chemical symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalence?making four electrons available to form covalent bond chemical bonds.... -containing) chemicals. These are called organic solvents. Solvents usually have a low boiling point Boiling point The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid....  and evaporate Evaporation Evaporation is the slow vaporization of a liquid and the reverse of condensation. A type of phase transition, it is the process by which molecules in a liquid State of matter spontaneously become gaseous ....  easily or can be removed by distillation Distillation Distillation is a method of separation process mixtures based on differences in their Volatility in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction.... , leaving the dissolved substance behind. To distinguish between solutes and solvents, solvents are usually present in the greater amount. Solvents can also be used to extract soluble compounds from a mixture, the most common example is the brewing of coffee Coffee Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans, of the Coffea. Caffeinated coffee has a stimulating effect in humans....  or tea Tea Tea refers to the agricultural products of the leaves, leaf buds, and internodes of the Camellia sinensis plant, prepared and cured by various methods....  with hot water. Solvents are usually clear and colorless liquids and many have a characteristic odor Odor An odor or odour is a volatilized chemical compound, generally at a very low concentration, that humans or other animals perceive by the sense of olfaction.... . The concentration Concentration In chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given chemical substance there is mixed with another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most frequently the concept is limited to homogeneous solutions, where it refers to the amount of solute in the solvent....  of a solution is the amount of compound that is dissolved in a certain volume Volume The volume of any solid, liquid, plasma, vacuum or theoretical object is how much three-dimensional space it occupies, often quantified numerically....  of solvent. The solubility Solubility Solubility is often seen as a property of a substance; for instance the solubility of a solid substance usually refers to the concentration of the substance in a liquid that has reached equilibrium with the substance in solid phase ....  is the maximal amount of compound that is soluble in a certain volume of solvent at a specified temperature Temperature In physics, temperature is a physical property of a Physical system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold; something that feels hotter generally has the greater temperature.... . Common uses for organic solvents are in dry cleaning Dry cleaning Dry cleaning is any cleaning process for clothing and textiles using an organic solvent rather than water. The solvent used is typically tetrachloroethylene , abbreviated "perc" in the industry and "dry-cleaning fluid" by the public....  (e.g. tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloroethylene, also known under its systematic name tetrachloroethene and as perchloroethylene, perchloroethene, perc, and PCE, is a chlorocarbon with the formula Cl2C=CCl2.... ), as paint thinners (e.g. toluene, turpentine), as nail polish removers and glue solvents (acetone Acetone Acetone is the organic compound with the chemical formula OC2. This colorless, mobile, flammable liquid is the simplest example of the ketones.... , methyl acetate Methyl acetate Methyl acetate, also known as acetic acid methyl ester or methyl ethanoate, is a clear, flammable liquid with a characteristic, not unpleasant smell like certain glues or nail polish removers.... , ethyl acetate Ethyl acetate Ethyl acetate is the organic compound with the formula CH3COOCH2CH3. This colorless liquid has a characteristic sweet smell like certain glues or nail polish removers, in which it is used.... ), in spot removers (e.g. hexane Hexane Hexane is an alkane hydrocarbon with the chemical formula CH34CH3 or C6H14. The "hex" prefix refers to its six carbons, while the "ane" ending indicates that its carbons are connected by single bonds.... , petrol ether), in detergents (citrus terpenes), in perfume Perfume Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, animals, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell.... s (ethanol Ethanol Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatility , flammable, colorless liquid.... ), and in chemical syntheses. The use of inorganic Inorganic chemistry Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad organic compounds , which are the subjects of organic chemistry....  solvents (other than water) is typically limited to research chemistry and some technological processes. In 2005, the worldwide market for solvents had a total volume of around 17.9 million tons, which led to a turnover of about 8 billion Euro. Solutions and solvation When one substance is dissolved into another, a solution is formed. This is opposed to a mixture Mixture In chemistry, a mixture is a substance made by combining two or more different materials without a chemical reaction occurring .While there are no physical changes in a mixture, the chemical properties of a mixture, such as its melting point, may differ from those of its components....  where one compound is added to another and no chemical bond Chemical bond A chemical bond is the physical process responsible for the attractive interactions between atoms and molecules, and that which confers stability to diatomic and polyatomic chemical compounds....  is formed; a way to think of mixtures and solutions is to compare a cup of water with sand mixed in versus a soda Soda Soda refers to:* a chemical compound containing sodium**Sodium carbonate, washing soda or soda ash**Sodium bicarbonate, baking soda**Sodium hydroxide, caustic soda...  where all of the ingredients are uniform to create a new substance. No residue is left in the bottom. The mixing is referred to as miscibility Miscibility Miscibility is a term commonly used in chemistry that refers to the property of liquids to mix in all proportions, forming a Homogeneity solution.... , whereas the ability to dissolve one compound into another is known as solubility Solubility Solubility is often seen as a property of a substance; for instance the solubility of a solid substance usually refers to the concentration of the substance in a liquid that has reached equilibrium with the substance in solid phase .... . However, in addition to mixing, both substances in the solution can interact with each other in specific ways. Solvation describes these interactions. When something is dissolved, molecules of the solvent arrange themselves around molecules of the solute. Heat Heat In physics and thermodynamics, heat is any transfer of energy from one body or thermodynamic system to another due to a difference in temperature....  is evolved and entropy Entropy In many branches of science, entropy is a measure of the disorder of a system. The concept of entropy is particularly notable as it is applied across physics, information theory and mathematics....  is increased making the solution more thermodynamically stable than the solute alone. This arranging is mediated by the respective chemical properties of the solvent and solute, such as hydrogen bonding, dipole moment Dipole moment Dipole moment refers to the quality of a system to behave like a dipole. Dipole moment is the measured polarity of a polar covalent bond. It is defined as the product magnitude of charge on the atoms and the distance between the two bonded atoms....  and polarizability Polarizability Polarizability is the relative tendency of a charge distribution, like the electron cloud of an atom or molecule, to be distorted from its normal shape by an external electric field, which may be caused by the presence of a nearby ion or Dipole#Field_from_an_electric_dipole.... . Solvent classifications Solvents can be broadly classified into two categories: polar and non-polar. Generally, the dielectric constant Dielectric constant The relative static permittivity of a material under given conditions is a measure of the extent to which it concentrates electrostatic lines of flux....  of the solvent provides a rough measure of a solvent's polarity. Solvents with a dielectric constant of less than 15 are generally considered nonpolar. Technically, the dielectric constant measures the solvent's ability to reduce the field strength of the electric field surrounding a charged particle immersed in it. This reduction is then compared to the field strength of the charged particle in a vacuum. In laymen's terms, dielectric constant of a solvent can be thought of as its ability to reduce the solute's internal charge. Other polarity scales Dielectric constants are not the only measure of polarity. Because solvents are used by chemists to carry out chemical reactions or observe chemical and biological phenomena, more specific measures of polarity are required. The Grunwald Winstein mY scale measures polarity in terms of solvent influence on buildup of positive charge of a solute during a chemical reaction. Kosower's Z scale measures polarity in terms of the influence of the solvent on uv Ultraviolet Ultraviolet light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that of visible light, but longer than x-rays, in the range 400 nanometer to 10 nm, and energies from 3 Electron volt to 124 eV....  absorption maxima of a salt, usually pyridinium Pyridinium Pyridinium refers to the cationic form of pyridine. This can either be due to protonation of the ring nitrogen or because of addition of a substituent to the ring nitrogen, typically via alkylation....  iodide Iodide An iodide ion is an iodine with a −1 electric charge. Compounds with iodine in formal oxidation state −1 are called iodides. This can include ionic compounds such as caesium iodide or covalent compounds such as phosphorus triiodide....  or the pyridinium zwitterion Zwitterion A zwitterion is a chemical compound that carries a total net charge of 0, thus electrically neutral but carries Formal charge on different atoms.... . Donor number and donar acceptor scale measures polarity in terms of how a solvent interacts with specific substances, like a strong Lewis acid Lewis acid A Lewis acid is a chemical compound, A, that can accept a pair of electrons from a Lewis base, B, that acts as an electron-pair donor, forming an adduct, AB.Gilbert N....  or a strong Lewis base. The polarity, dipole moment, polarizability and hydrogen bonding of a solvent determines what type of compounds Chemical compound A chemical compound is a Chemical substance consisting of two or more different chemical element Chemical bond together in a fixed mass ratio that can be split into simpler substances....  it is able to dissolve and with what other solvents or liquid compounds it is miscible. As a rule of thumb, polar solvents dissolve polar compounds best and non-polar solvents dissolve non-polar compounds best: "like dissolves like". Strongly polar compounds like sugars (e.g. sucrose) or ionic compounds, like inorganic Inorganic chemistry Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad organic compounds , which are the subjects of organic chemistry....  salt Salt A salt, in chemistry, is defined as the product formed from the neutralisation reaction of acids and base . Salts are ionic compounds composed of cations and anions so that the product is electrically electric charge .... s (e.g. table salt) dissolve only in very polar solvents like water, while strongly non-polar compounds like oil Oil An oil is a chemical substance that is in a viscosity liquid state at room temperature or slightly warmer, and is both hydrophobic and lipophilic .... s or wax Wax Wax has traditionally referred to a substance that is secreted by bees and used by them in constructing their honeycombs.It is an imprecisely defined term generally understood to be a substance with properties similar to beeswax, namely... es dissolve only in very non-polar organic solvents like hexane Hexane Hexane is an alkane hydrocarbon with the chemical formula CH34CH3 or C6H14. The "hex" prefix refers to its six carbons, while the "ane" ending indicates that its carbons are connected by single bonds.... . Similarly, water and hexane Hexane Hexane is an alkane hydrocarbon with the chemical formula CH34CH3 or C6H14. The "hex" prefix refers to its six carbons, while the "ane" ending indicates that its carbons are connected by single bonds....  (or vinegar Vinegar Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the fermentation of ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient, acetic acid . It also may come in a diluted form....  and vegetable oil) are not miscible with each other and will quickly separate into two layers even after being shaken well. Polar protic and polar a-protic Solvents with a relative static permittivity greater than 15 can be further divided into protic Protic Protic is a Serbs surname. It may refer to:* Milorad B. Protic, an astronomer* Miodrag B. Protic, a painter* Stojan Protic, Yugoslav political figure...  and aprotic. Protic solvents solvate anions (negatively charged solutes) strongly via hydrogen bonding. Water is a protic solvent. Aprotic solvents such as acetone Acetone Acetone is the organic compound with the chemical formula OC2. This colorless, mobile, flammable liquid is the simplest example of the ketones....  or dichloromethane Dichloromethane Dichloromethane or methylene chloride is the chemical compound with the chemical formula CarbonHydrogen2Chlorine2....  tend to have large dipole moment Dipole moment Dipole moment refers to the quality of a system to behave like a dipole. Dipole moment is the measured polarity of a polar covalent bond. It is defined as the product magnitude of charge on the atoms and the distance between the two bonded atoms.... s (separation of partial positive and partial negative charges within the same molecule) and solvate positively charged species via their negative dipole. In chemical reaction Chemical reaction A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of chemical substances. The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants.... s the use of polar protic solvents favors the SN1 SN1 reaction The SN1 reaction is a substitution reaction in organic chemistry. "SN" stands for nucleophilic substitution and the "1" represents the fact that the rate-determining step is molecule....  reaction mechanism Reaction mechanism In chemistry, a reaction mechanism is the step by step sequence of elementary reactions by which overall chemical change occurs .Although only the net chemical change is directly observation for most chemical reactions, experiments can often be designed that suggest the possible sequence of steps in a reaction mechanism.... , while polar aprotic solvents favor the SN2 SN2 reaction The SN2 reaction is a type of nucleophilic substitution, where a lone pair from a nucleophile attacks an electron deficient electrophile center and covalent bond to it, expelling another group called a leaving group....  reaction mechanism. Solvent effects Boiling point Another important property of solvents is boiling point. This also determines the speed of evaporation. Small amounts of low-boiling solvents like diethyl ether Diethyl ether Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear, colorless, and highly flammable liquid with a low boiling point and a characteristic odor.... , dichloromethane Dichloromethane Dichloromethane or methylene chloride is the chemical compound with the chemical formula CarbonHydrogen2Chlorine2.... , or acetone will evaporate in seconds at room temperature, while high-boiling solvents like water or dimethyl sulfoxide Dimethyl sulfoxide Dimethyl sulfoxide is the chemical compound with the chemical formula 2SO. It was first synthesized in 1866 by the Russian scientist Alexander Saytzeff, who reported his findings in a German chemistry journal in 1867....  need higher temperatures, an air flow, or the application of vacuum Vacuum A vacuum is a volume of space that is essentially empty of matter, such that its gaseous pressure is much less than atmospheric pressure. The word comes from the Latin term for "empty," but in reality, no volume of space can ever be perfectly empty....  for fast evaporation. Low Boilers: Boiling ranges below 100 °C Medium Boilers: Boiling ranges between 100 °C and 150 °C High Boilers: Boiling ranges above 150 °C For comparison, the boiling point of water is 100 °C. Density Most organic solvents have a lower density Density The density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. The symbol of density is ....  than water, which means they are lighter and will form a separate layer on top of water. An important exception: many halogen Halogen |}The halogens or halogen elements are a chemical series of nonmetal chemical element from Periodic table group International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry of the periodic table, comprising fluorine, F; chlorine, Cl; bromine, Br; iodine, I; and astatine, At.... ated solvents like dichloromethane Dichloromethane Dichloromethane or methylene chloride is the chemical compound with the chemical formula CarbonHydrogen2Chlorine2....  or chloroform Chloroform Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a chemical compound with chemical formula CarbonHydrogenChlorine3....  will sink to the bottom of a container, leaving water as the top layer. This is important to remember when partitioning Partition coefficient In the fields of organic chemistry and medicinal chemistry, a partition or distribution coefficient is the ratio of concentrations of a chemical compound in the two phases of a mixture of two immiscible solvents at equilibrium....  compounds between solvents and water in a separatory funnel Separatory funnel A separating funnel, also known as separation funnel, separatory funnel, or colloquially sep funnel, is a laboratory glassware used in liquid-liquid extractions to separate the components of a mixture between two miscible solvent phases of different density....  during chemical syntheses. Health and safety Fire Most organic solvents are flammable or highly flammable, depending on their volatility. Exceptions are some chlorinated solvents like dichloromethane Dichloromethane Dichloromethane or methylene chloride is the chemical compound with the chemical formula CarbonHydrogen2Chlorine2....  and chloroform Chloroform Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a chemical compound with chemical formula CarbonHydrogenChlorine3.... . Mixtures of solvent vapors and air can explode Explosion An explosion is a sudden increase in volume and release of energy in an extreme manner, usually with the generation of high temperatures and the release of gases.... . Solvent vapors are heavier than air; they will sink to the bottom and can travel large distances nearly undiluted. Solvent vapors can also be found in supposedly empty drums and cans, posing a flash fire Flash fire A flash fire is an unexpected, sudden intense fire caused by ignition of flammable solids , liquids, or gases. It is characterized by high-temperature, short-duration, considerable shock waves, and a rapidly moving flame front....  hazard; hence empty containers of volatile solvents should be stored open and upside down. Both diethyl ether Diethyl ether Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear, colorless, and highly flammable liquid with a low boiling point and a characteristic odor....  and carbon disulfide Carbon disulfide Carbon disulfide is a colorless, volatile liquid with the chemical formula CS2. The compound is used frequently as a building block in organic chemistry as well as an industrial and chemical non-polar solvent....  have exceptionally low autoignition temperature Autoignition temperature The autoignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is the lowest temperature at which it will Spontaneous combustion in a normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or spark.... s which increase greatly the fire risk associated with these solvents. The autoignition temperature of carbon disulfide is below 100°C (212°F), so as a result objects such as steam Steam In physical chemistry, and in engineering, steam refers to vaporized water. It is a pure, completely invisible gaseous phase . At standard temperature and pressure, pure steam occupies about 1,600 times the volume of an equal mass of liquid water....  pipes, light bulbs, hotplates and recently extinguished bunsen burner Bunsen burner A Bunsen burner is a common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas flame, which is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion.... s are able to ignite its vapours. Peroxide formation Ether Ether Ether is a class of organic compounds which contain an ether functional group ? an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups ? of general formula R?O?R.... s like diethyl ether Diethyl ether Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear, colorless, and highly flammable liquid with a low boiling point and a characteristic odor....  and tetrahydrofuran Tetrahydrofuran Tetrahydrofuran is a colorless, water-miscible organic liquid with low-viscosity at "room" temperature and pressure . It is a Heterocyclic compound compound with a chemical formula C4H8O, and is the fully Hydrogenation analog of the aromatic organic compound furan....  (THF) can form highly explosive organic peroxide Organic peroxide Organic peroxides are organic compounds containing the peroxide functional group . If the R' is hydrogen, the compound is called an organic hydroperoxide.... s upon exposure to oxygen and light, THF is normally more able to form such peroxide Peroxide A peroxide is a compound containing an oxygen-oxygen chemical bond. The simplest stable peroxide is hydrogen peroxide. Superoxides, dioxygenyls, ozones and ozonides compound are considered separately.... s than diethyl ether. One of the most susceptible solvents is diisopropyl ether Diisopropyl ether Diisopropyl ether is secondary ether that is used as a solvent. It is a colorless liquid that is slightly soluble in water, but miscible with most organic solvents.... . The heteroatom (oxygen Oxygen Oxygen no O2 produced; 2) O2 produced, but absorbed in oceans & seabed rock; 3) O2 starts to gas out of the oceans, but is absorbed by land surfaces and formation of ozone layer; 4-5) O2 sinks filled and the gas accumulates]]... ) stabilizes the formation of a free radical which is formed by the abstraction of a hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the chemical symbol H. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly combustion and explosive Diatomic molecule gas with the molecular formula H2....  atom by another free radical. The carbon centred free radical thus formed is able to react with an oxygen molecule to form a peroxide compound. A range of tests can be used to detect the presence of a peroxide in an ether; one is to use a combination of iron sulfate Iron sulfate Iron sulfate may refer to:*Ferrous sulfate, Iron sulfate, FeSO4*Ferric sulfate, Iron sulfate, Fe23...  and potassium thiocyanate Potassium thiocyanate Potassium thiocyanate is the chemical compound with the molecular formula KSCN. It is an important salt of the thiocyanate anion, one of the pseudohalides.... . The peroxide is able to oxidize the Fe2+ ion to an Fe3+ ion which then form a deep red coordination complex with the thiocyanate Thiocyanate Thiocyanate is the anion, [SCN]-. Common compounds include the colourless salts potassium thiocyanate and sodium thiocyanate. Organic compounds containing the functional group SCN are also called thiocyanates.... . In extreme cases the peroxides can form crystalline solids within the vessel of the ether. Unless the desiccant Desiccant A desiccant is a hygroscopic substance that induces or sustains a state of dryness in its local vicinity in a moderately-well sealed container.Commonly encountered pre-packaged desiccants are solids, and work through absorption or adsorption of water, or a combination of the two....  used can destroy the peroxides, they will concentrate during distillation due to their higher boiling point Boiling point The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid.... . When sufficient peroxides have formed, they can form a crystalline and shock sensitive solid precipitate. When this solid is formed at the mouth of the bottle, turning the cap may provide sufficient energy for the peroxide to detonate. Peroxide formation is not a significant problem when solvents are used up quickly; they are more of a problem for laboratories which take years to finish a single bottle. Ethers have to be stored in the dark in closed canisters in the presence of stabilizers like butylated hydroxytoluene Butylated hydroxytoluene Butylated hydroxytoluene , also known as butylhydroxytoluene, is a lipophilic organic compound that is primarily used as an antioxidant food additive as well as in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, jet fuels, rubber, petroleum products, Transformer oil, and embalming fluid....  (BHT) or over sodium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide , also known as lye, caustic soda and sodium hydrate, is a caustic metallic Base . Sodium hydroxide forms a strong alkaline solution when dissolved in a solvent such as water, however, only the hydroxide ion is basic.... . Peroxides may be removed by washing with acidic iron(II) sulfate, filtering through alumina, or distilling Distillation Distillation is a method of separation process mixtures based on differences in their Volatility in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction....  from sodium Sodium Sodium is an element which has the symbol Na , atomic number 11, atomic mass 23 amu , and a common oxidation number +1. Sodium is a soft, silvery white, highly reactive element and is a member of the alkali metals within "group 1" .... /benzophenone Benzophenone Benzophenone is the organic compound with the formula 2Coxygen, generally abbreviated phenyl2CO. Benzophenone is a widely used building block in organic chemistry, being the parent diarylketone.... . Alumina does not destroy the peroxides; it merely traps them. The advantage of using sodium/benzophenone is that moisture Moisture Moisture generally refers to the presence of water, often in trace amounts.The moisture content is often an important aspect of various Food including cheese and many dried goods such as tea where excess moisture can promote Bacteria, Bacterial decay, Mold, or Rot over time....  and oxygen Oxygen Oxygen no O2 produced; 2) O2 produced, but absorbed in oceans & seabed rock; 3) O2 starts to gas out of the oceans, but is absorbed by land surfaces and formation of ozone layer; 4-5) O2 sinks filled and the gas accumulates]]...  is removed as well. Health effects Many solvents can lead to a sudden loss of consciousness if inhaled Inhalation Inhalation is the movement of air from the external environment, through the air ways, and into the alveoli.Inhalation begins with the onset of contraction of the diaphragm , which results in expansion of the intrapleural space and an increase in negative pressure according to Boyle's Law....  in large amounts. Solvents like diethyl ether Diethyl ether Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear, colorless, and highly flammable liquid with a low boiling point and a characteristic odor....  and chloroform Chloroform Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a chemical compound with chemical formula CarbonHydrogenChlorine3....  have been used in medicine as anesthetics, sedatives, and hypnotics for a long time. Ethanol Ethanol Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatility , flammable, colorless liquid....  (grain alcohol) is a widely used and abused psychoactive drug Psychoactive drug A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a chemical substance that acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood , consciousness and behaviour.... . Diethyl ether, chloroform, and many other solvents (e.g. from gasoline Gasoline File:GasCan.jpgGasoline or petrol is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture, primarily used as fuel in internal combustion engines.It consists mostly of aliphatic hydrocarbons, enhanced with iso-octane or the aromatic hydrocarbons toluene and benzene to increase its octane rating....  or glues) are used recreationally in glue sniffing, often with harmful long term health effects like neurotoxicity Neurotoxicity Neurotoxicity occurs when the exposure to natural or artificial toxic substances, which are called neurotoxins, alters the normal activity of the nervous system in such a way as to cause damage to nervous tissue....  or cancer Cancer Cancer is a class of diseases in which a group of cell display uncontrolled growth , invasion , and sometimes metastasis . These three malignant properties of cancers differentiate them from benign tumors, which are self-limited, do not invade or metastasize.... . Methanol Methanol Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a chemical compound with chemical formula carbonhydrogen3oxygenhydrogen ....  can cause internal damage to the eye Eye Eyes are Organ that detect light, and send signals along the optic nerve to the visual system and other areas of the brain. Complex optical systems with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different forms, and 96% of animal species possess a complex optical system.... s, including permanent blindness. It is interesting to note that ethanol has a synergistic effect when taken in combination with many solvents. For instance a combination of toluene Toluene Toluene, also known as methylbenzene or phenylmethane, is a clear, Water -insoluble liquid with the typical smell of paint thinners, redolent of the sweet smell of the related compound benzene.... /benzene Benzene Benzene, or benzol, is an organic compound chemical compound and a known carcinogen with the molecular formula Carbon6Hydrogen6....  and ethanol causes greater nausea Nausea Nausea is the sensation of unease and discomfort in the stomach with an urge to vomit.... /vomiting Vomiting Vomiting is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose. Undesired vomiting may result from many causes, ranging from gastritis or poisoning to brain tumors, or elevated intracranial pressure....  than either substance alone. Many chemists make a point of not drinking beer Beer Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and Fermentation of starches, mainly derived from cereal?the most common of which is malted barley, although wheat, maize , and rice are widely used.... /wine Wine Wine is an alcoholic beverage often made of fermentation grape juice. The natural chemical balance of grapes is such that they can ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes or other nutrients.... /other alcoholic drinks if they know that they have been exposed to an aromatic solvent. Environmental contamination A major pathway to induce health effects arises from spills or leaks of solvents that reach the underlying soil. Since solvents readily migrate substantial distances, the creation of widespread soil contamination Soil contamination Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes...  is not uncommon; there may be about 5000 sites worldwide that have major subsurface solvent contamination; this is particularly a health risk if aquifer Aquifer An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials from which groundwater can be usefully extracted using a water well.... s are affected. Chronic health effects Some solvents including chloroform and benzene Benzene Benzene, or benzol, is an organic compound chemical compound and a known carcinogen with the molecular formula Carbon6Hydrogen6....  (an ingredient of gasoline Gasoline File:GasCan.jpgGasoline or petrol is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture, primarily used as fuel in internal combustion engines.It consists mostly of aliphatic hydrocarbons, enhanced with iso-octane or the aromatic hydrocarbons toluene and benzene to increase its octane rating.... ) are carcinogen Carcinogen The term carcinogen refers to any substance, radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of cancer or in the increase of its propagation.... ic. Many others can damage internal organs like the liver Liver The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals; it has a wide range of functions, a few of which are detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion.... , the kidneys, or the brain Brain The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate, and most invertebrate, animals. Some primitive animals such as cnidarian and echinoderm have a decentralized nervous system without a brain, while sponges lack any nervous system at all.... . General precautions Avoid being exposed to solvent vapors by working in a fume hood Fume hood A fume hood or fume cupboard is a large piece of scientific equipment common to chemistry laboratories designed to limit a person's exposure to hazardous and/or unpleasant fumes.... , or with local exhaust ventilation (LEV), or in a well ventilated area Keep the storage containers tightly closed Never use open flames near flammable solvents; use electrical heating instead Never flush flammable solvents down the drain; read safety data sheets for proper disposal information Avoid the inhalation of solvent vapors Avoid contact of the solvent with the skin — many solvents are easily absorbed through the skin. They also tend to dry the skin and may cause sores and wounds. Properties table of common solvents The solvents are grouped into non-polar, polar aprotic, and polar protic solvents and ordered by increasing polarity. The polarity is given as the dielectric constant Dielectric constant The relative static permittivity of a material under given conditions is a measure of the extent to which it concentrates electrostatic lines of flux.... . The density Density The density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. The symbol of density is ....  of solvents that are heavier than water is bolded. align="center" | Solvent ! align="center" | Chemical Formula Chemical formula A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound, and how the relationship between those atoms changes in chemical reactions.... ! align="center" | Boiling point Boiling point The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid.... ! align="center" | Dielectric constant Dielectric constant The relative static permittivity of a material under given conditions is a measure of the extent to which it concentrates electrostatic lines of flux.... ! align="center" | Density Density The density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. The symbol of density is .... |- bgcolor="#DDDDDD" | align="center" colspan="5" | Non-Polar Solvents |- bgcolor="#DDDDDD" | align="center" | Hexane Hexane Hexane is an alkane hydrocarbon with the chemical formula CH34CH3 or C6H14. The "hex" prefix refers to its six carbons, while the "ane" ending indicates that its carbons are connected by single bonds.... | align="center" | CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 | align="center" | 69 °C | align="center" | 2.0 | align="center" | 0.655 g/ml |- bgcolor="#DDDDDD" | align="center" | Benzene Benzene Benzene, or benzol, is an organic compound chemical compound and a known carcinogen with the molecular formula Carbon6Hydrogen6.... | align="center" | C6H6 | align="center" | 80 °C | align="center" | 2.3 | align="center" | 0.879 g/ml |- bgcolor="#DDDDDD" | align="center" | Toluene Toluene Toluene, also known as methylbenzene or phenylmethane, is a clear, Water -insoluble liquid with the typical smell of paint thinners, redolent of the sweet smell of the related compound benzene.... | align="center" | C6H5-CH3 | align="center" | 111 °C | align="center" | 2.4 | align="center" | 0.867 g/ml |- bgcolor="#DDDDDD" | align="center" | Diethyl ether Diethyl ether Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear, colorless, and highly flammable liquid with a low boiling point and a characteristic odor.... | align="center" | CH3CH2-O-CH2-CH3 | align="center" | 35 °C | align="center" | 4.3 | align="center" | 0.713 g/ml |- bgcolor="#DDDDDD" | align="center" | Chloroform Chloroform Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a chemical compound with chemical formula CarbonHydrogenChlorine3.... | align="center" | CHCl3 | align="center" | 61 °C | align="center" | 4.8 | align="center" | 1.498 g/ml |- bgcolor="#DDDDDD" | align="center" | Ethyl acetate Ethyl acetate Ethyl acetate is the organic compound with the formula CH3COOCH2CH3. This colorless liquid has a characteristic sweet smell like certain glues or nail polish removers, in which it is used.... | align="center" | CH3-C(=O)-O-CH2-CH3 | align="center" | 77 °C | align="center" | 6.0 | align="center" | 0.894 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCFF" | align="center" colspan="5" | Polar Chemical polarity In chemistry, polarity refers to the dipole-dipole intermolecular forces between the slightly electric charge end of one molecule to the negative end of another or the same molecule....  Aprotic Solvents |- bgcolor="#FFCCFF" | align="center" | 1,4-Dioxane 1,4-Dioxane 1,4-Dioxane, often just called dioxane, is a clear, colorless heterocyclic organic compound which is a liquid at room temperature and pressure.... | align="center" | /-CH2-CH2-O-CH2-CH2-O-\ | align="center" | 101 °C | align="center" | 2.3 | align="center" | 1.033 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCFF" | align="center" | Tetrahydrofuran Tetrahydrofuran Tetrahydrofuran is a colorless, water-miscible organic liquid with low-viscosity at "room" temperature and pressure . It is a Heterocyclic compound compound with a chemical formula C4H8O, and is the fully Hydrogenation analog of the aromatic organic compound furan....  (THF) | align="center" | /-CH2-CH2-O-CH2-CH2-\ | align="center" | 66 °C | align="center" | 7.5 | align="center" | 0.886 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCFF" | align="center" | Dichloromethane Dichloromethane Dichloromethane or methylene chloride is the chemical compound with the chemical formula CarbonHydrogen2Chlorine2....  (DCM) | align="center" | CH2Cl2 | align="center" | 40 °C | align="center" | 9.1 | align="center" | 1.326 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCFF" | align="center" | Acetone Acetone Acetone is the organic compound with the chemical formula OC2. This colorless, mobile, flammable liquid is the simplest example of the ketones.... | align="center" | CH3-C(=O)-CH3 | align="center" | 56 °C | align="center" | 21 | align="center" | 0.786 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCFF" | align="center" | Acetonitrile Acetonitrile Acetonitrile is the chemical compound with chemical formula CH3CN. This colourless liquid is the simplest organic nitrile and is widely used as a solvent....  (MeCN) | align="center" | CH3-C=N | align="center" | 82 °C | align="center" | 37 | align="center" | 0.786 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCFF" | align="center" | Dimethylformamide Dimethylformamide Dimethylformamide is the organic compound with the chemical formula 2NCH. Commonly abbreviated DMF, this colourless liquid is miscible with Water and the majority of organic liquids....  (DMF) | align="center" | H-C(=O)N(CH3)2 | align="center" | 153 °C | align="center" | 38 | align="center" | 0.944 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCFF" | align="center" | Dimethyl sulfoxide Dimethyl sulfoxide Dimethyl sulfoxide is the chemical compound with the chemical formula 2SO. It was first synthesized in 1866 by the Russian scientist Alexander Saytzeff, who reported his findings in a German chemistry journal in 1867....  (DMSO) | align="center" | CH3-S(=O)-CH3 | align="center" | 189 °C | align="center" | 47 | align="center" | 1.092 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | align="center" colspan="5" | Polar Protic Protic Protic is a Serbs surname. It may refer to:* Milorad B. Protic, an astronomer* Miodrag B. Protic, a painter* Stojan Protic, Yugoslav political figure...  Solvents |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | align="center" | Acetic acid Acetic acid Acetic acid, CH3COOH, also known as ethanoic acid, is an organic acid which gives vinegar its sour taste and pungent smell. Pure, water-free acetic acid is a colourless liquid that absorbs water from the environment , and freezes at 16.7 Celsius to a colourless crystalline solid.... | align="center" | CH3-C(=O)OH | align="center" | 118 °C | align="center" | 6.2 | align="center" | 1.049 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | align="center" | n-Butanol Butanol Butanol or butyl alcohol , is a primary alcohol with a 4 carbon structure and the molecular formula of Carbon4Hydrogen9Oxygen.... | align="center" | CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH | align="center" | 118 °C | align="center" | 18 | align="center" | 0.810 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | align="center" | Isopropanol (IPA) | align="center" | CH3-CH(-OH)-CH3 | align="center" | 82 °C | align="center" | 18 | align="center" | 0.785 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | align="center" | n-Propanol | align="center" | CH3-CH2-CH2-OH | align="center" | 97 °C | align="center" | 20 | align="center" | 0.803 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | align="center" | Ethanol Ethanol Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatility , flammable, colorless liquid.... | align="center" | CH3-CH2-OH | align="center" | 79 °C | align="center" | 30 | align="center" | 0.789 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | align="center" | Methanol Methanol Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a chemical compound with chemical formula carbonhydrogen3oxygenhydrogen .... | align="center" | CH3-OH | align="center" | 65 °C | align="center" | 33 | align="center" | 0.791 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | align="center" | Formic acid Formic acid Formic acid is the simplest carboxylic acid. Its formula is hydrogencarbonoxygenOH or CH2O2. It is an important intermediate in chemical synthesis and occurs naturally, most notably in the venom of bee and ant stingers.... | align="center" | H-C(=O)OH | align="center" | 100 °C | align="center" | 58 | align="center" | 1.21 g/ml |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | align="center" | Water Water (molecule) File:Blue-water-pool.jpgWater is the most abundant molecule on Earth's surface, constituting about 70% of the Earth's surface in liquid, solid, and gaseous states.... | align="center" | H-O-H | align="center" | 100 °C | align="center" | 80 | align="center" | 1.000 g/ml

See also

• Partition coefficient
  Partition coefficient
  
  In the fields of organic chemistry and medicinal chemistry, a partition or distribution coefficient is the ratio of concentrations of a chemical compound in the two phases of a mixture of two immiscible solvents at equilibrium....
   (log P) is a measure of differential solubility of a compound in two solvents
• Solvent systems exist outside the realm of ordinary organic solvents: Supercritical fluid
  Supercritical fluid
  
  A supercritical fluid is any substance at a temperature and pressure above its critical point . It can Diffusion through solids like a gas, and Solvation materials like a liquid....
  s, ionic liquid
  Ionic liquid
  
  An ionic liquid is a liquid that contains essentially only ion s. Some ionic liquids, such as ethylammonium nitrate are in a dynamic equilibrium where at any time more than 99.99% of the liquid is made up of ionic rather than molecular species....
  s and deep eutectic solvent
  Deep eutectic solvent
  
  A deep eutectic solvent or DES is a type of Ion solvent with special properties composed of a mixture which forms a eutectic with a melting point much lower than either of the individual components....
  s
• Water pollution
  Water pollution
  
  Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies such as lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater caused by human activities, which can be harmful to organisms and plants that live in these water bodies....
  
• Solvents are often refluxed with an appropriate desiccant
  Desiccant
  
  A desiccant is a hygroscopic substance that induces or sustains a state of dryness in its local vicinity in a moderately-well sealed container.Commonly encountered pre-packaged desiccants are solids, and work through absorption or adsorption of water, or a combination of the two....
   prior to distillation to remove water
• Occupational health

External links

• O-Chem Lecture
• Properties and toxicities of organic solvents