George Bentham

George Bentham

George Bentham CMG FRS was an English botanist, characterized by Duane Isely as "the premier systematic botanist of the nineteenth century".- Formative years :...

's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia

Banksia

Banksia is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes and fruiting "cones" and heads. When it comes to size, banksias range from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up...

 was published in 1870, in Volume 5 of Bentham's Flora Australiensis

Flora Australiensis

Flora Australiensis: a description of the plants of the Australian Territory, more commonly referred to as Flora Australiensis, and also known by its standard abbreviation Fl. Austral., is a seven-volume flora of Australia published between 1863 and 1878 by George Bentham, with the assistance of...

. A substantial improvement on the previous arrangement, it would stand for over a century. It was eventually replaced by Alex George

Alex George

Alexander Segger George is a Western Australian botanist. He is the authority on the plant genera Banksia and Dryandra...

's 1981 arrangement, published in his classic monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)

The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)

The genus Banksia L.f. is a 1981 monograph by Alex George on the taxonomy of the plant genus Banksia. Published by the Western Australian Herbarium as Nuytsia 3, it presented George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia, the first major taxonomic revision of the genus since George Bentham published...

.

Background

Banksia is a genus

Genus

In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...

 of around 80 species

Species

In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...

 in the plant

Plant

Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or...

 family Proteaceae

Proteaceae

Proteaceae is a family of flowering plants distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The family comprises about 80 genera with about 1600 species. Together with the Platanaceae and Nelumbonaceae they make up the order Proteales. Well known genera include Protea, Banksia, Embothrium, Grevillea,...

. An iconic Australia

Australia

Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...

n wildflower and popular garden

Garden

A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the display, cultivation, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The garden can incorporate both natural and man-made materials. The most common form today is known as a residential garden, but the term garden has...

 plant

Plant

Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or...

, they are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes and fruiting "cones". They grow in forms varying from prostrate woody shrub

Shrub

A shrub or bush is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and shorter height, usually under 5–6 m tall. A large number of plants may become either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience...

s to trees up to 35 metres tall, and occur in all but the most arid

Arid

A region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or even preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life...

 areas of Australia. As heavy producers of nectar

Nectar (plant)

Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants. It is produced in glands called nectaries, either within the flowers, in which it attracts pollinating animals, or by extrafloral nectaries, which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists, which in turn provide anti-herbivore protection...

, they are important sources of food for nectariferous animals such as honeyeater

Honeyeater

The honeyeaters are a large and diverse family of small to medium sized birds most common in Australia and New Guinea, but also found in New Zealand, the Pacific islands as far east as Samoa and Tonga, and the islands to the north and west of New Guinea known as Wallacea...

s and honey possum

Honey Possum

The honey possum or tait, its Native Australian name or noolbenger is a tiny Australian marsupial weighing just seven to eleven grams for the male, and eight to sixteen grams for the female—about half the weight of a mouse. Their physical size ranges from a body length of between 6.5 –...

, and they are of economic importance to the nursery

Nursery (horticulture)

A nursery is a place where plants are propagated and grown to usable size. They include retail nurseries which sell to the general public, wholesale nurseries which sell only to businesses such as other nurseries and to commercial gardeners, and private nurseries which supply the needs of...

 and cut flower

Floristry

Floristry is the general term used to describe production, commerce and trade in flowers. It encompasses flower care and handling, floral design or flower arranging, merchandising, and display and flower delivery. Wholesale florists sell bulk flowers and related supplies to professionals in the trade...

 industries. However they are seriously threatened by a number of processes including land clearing, frequent burning, and disease, and a number of species are rare

Rare species

A rare species is a group of organisms that are very uncommon or scarce. This designation may be applied to either a plant or animal taxon, and may be distinct from the term "endangered" or "threatened species" but not "extinct"....

 and endangered

Endangered species

An endangered species is a population of organisms which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters...

.

Specimens of Banksia were first collected by Sir Joseph Banks

Joseph Banks

Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, GCB, PRS was an English naturalist, botanist and patron of the natural sciences. He took part in Captain James Cook's first great voyage . Banks is credited with the introduction to the Western world of eucalyptus, acacia, mimosa and the genus named after him,...

 and Dr Daniel Solander

Daniel Solander

Daniel Carlsson Solander or Daniel Charles Solander was a Swedish naturalist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus. Solander was the first university educated scientist to set foot on Australian soil.-Biography:...

, naturalists on HM Bark Endeavour

HM Bark Endeavour

HMS Endeavour, also known as HM Bark Endeavour, was a British Royal Navy research vessel commanded by Lieutenant James Cook on his first voyage of discovery, to Australia and New Zealand from 1769 to 1771....

 during Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook

James Cook

Captain James Cook, FRS, RN was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer who ultimately rose to the rank of captain in the Royal Navy...

's 1770 voyage to the Pacific Ocean

Pacific Ocean

The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south, bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, and the Americas in the east.At 165.2 million square kilometres in area, this largest division of the World...

. By the time of Bentham's arrangement, 60 species were recognised. The most recent taxonomic arrangement, which had stood since 1856, was that of Carl Meissner

Carl Meissner

Carl Daniel Friedrich Meissner was a Swiss botanist.Born in Bern, Switzerland on 1 November 1800, he was christened Meisner but later changed the spelling of his name to Meissner. For most of his 40 year career he was Professor of Botany at University of Basel...

. Meissner's arrangement

Meissner's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia

Carl Meissner's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia was published in 1856, as part of his chapter on the Proteaceae in A. P. de Candolle's Prodromus systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis. It was the first attempt to provide an infrageneric classification for the genus, aside from Robert Brown's...

 divided the genus into two sections, with B. ilicifolia

Banksia ilicifolia

Banksia ilicifolia, commonly known as Holly-leaved Banksia, is a tree in the plant Proteaceae family. Endemic to southwest Western Australia, it belongs to Banksia subg. Isostylis, a subgenus of three closely related Banksia species with inflorescences that are dome-shaped heads rather than...

 placed alone in section Isostylis because of its unusual dome-shaped inflorescences, and all other species in section Eubanksia. The latter section was divided into four series, which were based on leaf properties and were highly heterogeneous.

Bentham's arrangement

As Bentham never visited Australia, he only had access to preserved specimens. Thus he was unable to distinguish between some similar pairs of species, and so reduced the number of species to 46. He retained Isostylis, but replaced Meissner's four series by four sections based on leaf, style and pollen-presenter

Pollen-presenter

A pollen-presenter is an area on the tip of the pistil in flowers of plants of the family Proteaceae. In this family, the anthers are difficult of access for potential pollination vectors such as bees, birds and nectariferous mammals....

 characters. Two of these, Oncostylis

Banksia sect. Oncostylis

Banksia sect. Oncostylis is one of four sections of subgenus Banksia subg. Banksia. It contains those Banksia species with hooked pistils. All of the species in Oncostylis also exhibit a top-down sequence of flower anthesis, except for Banksia nutans which is bottom-up.Banksia sect...

 and Eubanksia, were reasonably well-defined and homogeneous; section Orthostylis was somewhat heterogeneous; section Cyrtostylis was erected to contain the species that did not belong in the other sections, and was therefore highly heterogeneous.

George Bentham's 1870 taxonomic arrangement of Banksia may be summarised as follows:

Banksia

Banksia

Banksia is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes and fruiting "cones" and heads. When it comes to size, banksias range from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up...

B. sect. Oncostylis

Banksia sect. Oncostylis

Banksia sect. Oncostylis is one of four sections of subgenus Banksia subg. Banksia. It contains those Banksia species with hooked pistils. All of the species in Oncostylis also exhibit a top-down sequence of flower anthesis, except for Banksia nutans which is bottom-up.Banksia sect...

B. pulchella

Banksia pulchella

The Teasel Banksia is a species of small shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs on the south coast of Western Australia from Fitzgerald River National Park east to Israelite Bay....

B. Meissneri

Banksia meisneri

The Meisner's Banksia is a species of small shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs in a number of isolated populations throughout southwest Western Australia. Seeds do not require any treatment, and take 28 to 39 days to germinate.-External links:...

B. nutans

Banksia nutans

Banksia nutans, commonly known as Nodding Banksia, is a species of shrub native to the south coast of Western Australia in the genus Banksia...

B. sphærocarpa

Banksia sphaerocarpa

Banksia sphaerocarpa, commonly known as the Fox Banksia or Round-fruit Banksia, is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia . It is generally encountered as a 1–2 m high shrub, and is usually smaller in the north of its range...

B. sphaerocarpa var. glabrescens (now B. incana

Banksia incana

The Hoary Banksia is a species of small shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs on sandplain heathland between Badgingarra and Eneabba in Western Australia, with outlying populations as far south as Perth. Seeds do not require any treatment, and take around 14 days to germinate....

)

B. sphaerocarpa var. latifolia (now B. sphaerocarpa var. sphaerocarpa

Banksia sphaerocarpa var. sphaerocarpa

Banksia sphaerocarpa var. sphaerocarpa is a variety of Banksia sphaerocarpa. It is native to the Southwest Botanical Province of Western Australia. As an autonym, it is defined as containing the type specimen of the species....

)

B. tricuspis

Banksia tricuspis

The Lesueur Banksia or Pine Banksia is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs within a geographic range of just 15 square kilometres near Jurien, Western Australia.-External links:...

B. occidentalis

Banksia occidentalis

The Red Swamp Banksia or Waterbush is a species of shrub or small tree in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs on the south coast of Western Australia in three disjunct populations: at Augusta, around Albany and in the Esperance area.A 1980 field study at Cheyne beach showed it to be pollinated by...

B. littoralis

Banksia littoralis

Banksia littoralis, commonly known as the Swamp Banksia, Swamp Oak, Pungura and the Western Swamp Banksia, is a tree in the plant genus Banksia. It is found in south west Western Australia from the south eastern metropolitan area of Perth to the Stirling Range and Albany...

B. ericifolia

Banksia ericifolia

Banksia ericifolia, the Heath-leaved Banksia , is a species of woody shrub of the Proteaceae family native to Australia. It grows in two separate regions of Central and Northern New South Wales east of the Great Dividing Range...

B. spinulosa

Banksia spinulosa

The Hairpin Banksia is a species of woody shrub, of the genus Banksia in the Proteaceae family, native to eastern Australia. Widely distributed, it is found as an understorey plant in open dry forest or heathland from Victoria to northern Queensland, generally on sandstone though sometimes also...

B. collina (now B. spinulosa var. collina

Banksia spinulosa var. collina

Banksia spinulosa var. collina is a shrub that grows along the east coast of Australia, in Queensland and New South Wales. Commonly known as Hill Banksia or Golden Candlesticks, it is a taxonomic variety of B. spinulosa...

)

B. verticillata

Banksia verticillata

Banksia verticillata, commonly known as Granite Banksia or Albany Banksia, is a species of shrub or tree of the genus Banksia in the Proteaceae family. It is native to the southwest of Western Australia and can reach up to 3 m in height. It can grow taller to 5 m in sheltered areas,...

B. dryandroides

Banksia dryandroides

Banksia dryandroides, the Dryandra-leaved Banksia, is a species of small shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs in shrubland, coastal heath and woodland on the south coast of Western Australia between Two Peoples Bay and Cheyne Bay. The species is placed alone in series B. ser...

B. Brownii

Banksia brownii

Banksia brownii, commonly known as Feather-leaved Banksia or Brown's Banksia, is a species of shrub that occurs in southwest Western Australia. An attractive plant with fine feathery leaves and large red-brown flower spikes, it usually grows as an upright bush around two metres high, but can also...

B. sect. Cyrtostylis

B. attenuata

Banksia attenuata

Banksia attenuata, commonly known as the candlestick banksia or slender banksia, is a species of plant in the proteaceae family. Commonly a tree, it reaches 10 m high, but is often a shrub in dryer areas 0.4 to 2 m high...

B. media

Banksia media

The Southern Plains Banksia , also known as Golden Stalk Banksia, is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs on the south coast of Western Australia between Albany and Israelite Bay, where it is a common plant....

B. Solandri

Banksia solandri

Banksia solandri, commonly known as Stirling Range Banksia, is a species of large shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs only within the Stirling Range in southwest Western Australia.-Description:...

B. Goodii

Banksia goodii

Banksia goodii, commonly known as Good's Banksia, is an endangered shrub of Southwest Western Australia.Good's Banksia grows as a low shrub, either prostrate or with stems up to twenty centimetres high. The leaves are dark green with a prominent yellow midrib, and are held erect. They may be up...

B. petiolaris

Banksia petiolaris

Banksia petiolaris is a species of shrub of the genus Banksia in the Proteaceae family. It is a prostrate banksia, a group of several closely related species all with horizontal stems and thick, leathery upright leaves. No varieties have been subsequently described. It bears yellow inflorescences...

B. repens

Banksia repens

Banksia repens, the Creeping Banksia, is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs on the south coast of Western Australia from D'Entrecasteaux National Park in the west to Mount Ragged in the east....

B. prostrata (now B. gardneri

Banksia gardneri

The Prostrate Banksia is a species of prostrate shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs along the south coast of Western Australia.-Scientific name:...

)

B. grandis

Banksia grandis

Banksia grandis, commonly known as Bull Banksia, Giant Banksia or Mangite, is a common and distinctive tree in South West Western Australia....

B. quercifolia

Banksia quercifolia

The Oak-leaved Banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs on the south coast of Western Australia from D'Entrecasteaux National Park in the west to Mount Manypeaks in the east.-Ecology:...

B. quercifolia var. integrifolia (now B. oreophila

Banksia oreophila

The Western Mountain Banksia or Mountain Banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs on the slopes and hilltops of the Stirling and Barren Ranges in southwest Western Australia.-Taxonomy:...

)

B. Baueri

Banksia baueri

The Woolly Banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs in southwest Western Australia north and east of Albany. It has a distinctively large and hairy looking inflorescence which can be 300 mm or more long and up to 200 mm in diameter.It is placed alone in series...

B. sect. Eubanksia

Banksia sect. Eubanksia

Banksia sect. Eubanksia is an obsolete section of Banksia. There have been two circumscriptions, one of which is synonymous with the recently abandoned B. subg. Banksia sensu Alex George, the other having no modern equivalent....

B. marginata

Banksia marginata

Banksia marginata, commonly known as the Silver Banksia, is a species of tree or woody shrub in the plant genus Banksia found throughout much of southeastern Australia. It ranges from the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia, to north of Armidale, New South Wales, and across Tasmania and the islands...

B. integrifolia

Banksia integrifolia

Banksia integrifolia, commonly known as Coast Banksia, is a species of tree that grows along the east coast of Australia. One of the most widely distributed Banksia species, it occurs between Victoria and Central Queensland in a broad range of habitats, from coastal dunes to mountains...

B. dentata

Banksia dentata

The Tropical Banksia is a species of small tree in the plant genus Banksia.-Distribution and habitat:It occurs throughout northern Australia, and also extends into New Guinea and the Aru Islands...

B. sect. Orthostylis

B. latifolia (now B. robur

Banksia robur

Banksia robur, commonly known as Swamp Banksia or, less commonly, Broad-leaved Banksia grows in sand or peaty sand in coastal areas from Cooktown in north Queensland to the Illawarra region on the New South Wales south coast...

)

B. serrata

Banksia serrata

Banksia serrata, commonly known as Old Man Banksia, Saw Banksia, Saw-tooth Banksia and Red Honeysuckle, is a species of woody shrub or tree of the genus Banksia in the Proteaceae family. Native the east coast of Australia, it is found from Queensland through to Victoria with outlying populations on...

B. æmula

Banksia aemula

Banksia aemula, commonly known as the wallum banksia, is a lignotuberous shrub of the Proteaceae family. Found from Bundaberg south to Sydney on the Australian east coast, it is encountered as a shrub or a taller tree to 8 m in coastal heath on deep sandy soil, known as Wallum...

B. ornata

Banksia ornata

The Desert Banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia which grows up to 3 m tall. It occurs in western Victoria, and in South Australia, where it is common on the Eyre Peninsula, Kangaroo Island and east of Adelaide, but is apparently absent from Yorke Peninsula.It tends to grow...

B. coccinea

Banksia coccinea

Banksia coccinea, commonly known as the Scarlet Banksia, Waratah Banksia or Albany Banksia, is an erect shrub or small tree in the plant genus Banksia...

B. sceptrum

Banksia sceptrum

Banksia sceptrum, the Sceptre Banksia, occurs in Western Australia near the central west coast from Geraldton north through Kalbarri to Hamelin Pool. It extends inland almost to Mullewa....

B. Menziesii

Banksia menziesii

Banksia menziesii, commonly known as firewood banksia, is a species of flowering plant in the genus Banksia. It is a gnarled tree up to 10 m tall, or a lower spreading 1–3 m shrub in the more northern parts of its range. The serrated leaves are dull green with new growth a paler grey...

B. lævigata

Banksia laevigata

Banksia laevigata is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs in Western Australia's semi-arid shrubland from Southern Cross south to the Fitzgerald River National Park. It is composed of two closely related subspecies, B. laevigata subsp. laevigata and B. laevigata...

B. Hookeriana

Banksia hookeriana

The Hooker's Banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs on sandplain shrubland between Arrowsmith and Eneabba in Western Australia. Seeds do not require any treatment, and take 23 to 49 days to germinate....

B. prionotes

Banksia prionotes

Banksia prionotes, commonly known as Acorn Banksia or Orange Banksia, is a species of shrub or tree of the genus Banksia in the family Proteaceae. It is native to the southwest of Western Australia and can reach up to 10 m in height. It can be much smaller in more exposed areas or in the...

B. Victoriæ

Banksia victoriae

Banksia victoriae, commonly known as Woolly Orange Banksia, is a species of large shrub or small tree in the plant genus Banksia...

B. speciosa

Banksia speciosa

The Showy Banksia is a species of large shrub or small tree in the plant genus Banksia. It reaches up to 8 m in height...

B. Baxteri

Banksia baxteri

The Baxter's Banksia , also known as Bird's Nest Banksia, is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs along the south coast of Western Australia between Albany and Esperance....

B. marcescens (now B. praemorsa

Banksia praemorsa

The Cut-leaf Banksia is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs in a few isolated populations on the south coast of Western Australia between Albany and Cape Riche. Seeds do not require any treatment, and take 30 to 49 days to germinate.-References:...

)

B. Lemanniana

Banksia lemanniana

Banksia lemanniana, commonly known as the Yellow lantern Banksia or Lemann's Banksia, is a species of woody shrub in the genus Banksia of the family Proteaceae. It generally grows as an open shrub or small tree to 5 m high with stiff serrated leaves, and unusually hanging inflorescences...

B. Caleyi

Banksia caleyi

Banksia caleyi, commonly known as the red lantern banksia or Cayley's banksia, is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs in southern Western Australia south and east of the Stirling Ranges through to around Jerramungup...

B. Lindleyana

Banksia lindleyana

Banksia lindleyana, commonly known as the Porcupine Banksia, is a species of woody shrub in the genus Banksia of the family Proteaceae. It generally grows as a small shrub to 1 m high with long narrow serrated leaves, and bright yellow oval or round inflorescences...

B. elegans

Banksia elegans

The Elegant Banksia is a species of shrub or small tree in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs only over a 65 square kilometre area north and west of Eneabba, Western Australia.-Ecology:...

B. Candolleana

Banksia candolleana

The Propeller Banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs in sandplain country north of Gingin, Western Australia.-Description:...

B. sect. Isostylis

B. ilicifolia

Banksia ilicifolia

Banksia ilicifolia, commonly known as Holly-leaved Banksia, is a tree in the plant Proteaceae family. Endemic to southwest Western Australia, it belongs to Banksia subg. Isostylis, a subgenus of three closely related Banksia species with inflorescences that are dome-shaped heads rather than...

B. ilicifolia var. integrifolia (now B. ilicifolia

Banksia ilicifolia

Banksia ilicifolia, commonly known as Holly-leaved Banksia, is a tree in the plant Proteaceae family. Endemic to southwest Western Australia, it belongs to Banksia subg. Isostylis, a subgenus of three closely related Banksia species with inflorescences that are dome-shaped heads rather than...

)

Results

Despite some shortcomings, Bentham's arrangement remained current for over a hundred years. It was only superseded in 1981, with the publication of Alex George

Alex George

Alexander Segger George is a Western Australian botanist. He is the authority on the plant genera Banksia and Dryandra...

's arrangement in his landmark monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)

The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)

The genus Banksia L.f. is a 1981 monograph by Alex George on the taxonomy of the plant genus Banksia. Published by the Western Australian Herbarium as Nuytsia 3, it presented George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia, the first major taxonomic revision of the genus since George Bentham published...

.

Many of the species that Bentham discarded have now been reinstated. Section Isostylis is now maintained at subgenus level as Banksia subg. Isostylis

Banksia subg. Isostylis

Banksia subg. Isostylis is a subgenus of Banksia. It contains three closely related species, all of which occur only in Southwest Western Australia. Members of subgenus Isostylis have dome-shaped flower heads that are superficially similar to those of B. ser...

. Sections Oncostylis and Eubanksia are still maintained, but Eubanksia has been renamed Banksia sect. Banksia

Banksia sect. Banksia

Banksia sect. Banksia is one of four sections of Banksia subgenus Banksia. It contains those species of subgenus Banksia with straight or sometimes curved but not hooked styles. These species all have cylindrical inflorescences and usually exhibit a bottom-up sequence of flower anthesis...

 in accordance with the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. The other sections are no longer maintained.