See Also

James Cook

Captain James Cook, FRS Royal Society

The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Socie... 

, RN Royal Navy

The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom [i] is the oldest of the British armed services [i] ... 

  was an English England

England is the largest and most populous constituent country [i] of the United Kingdom [i]. ... 

 explorer, navigator and cartographer. He made three voyages to the Pacific Ocean Pacific Ocean

The Pacific Ocean is the world's largest body of water [i]. ... 

, accurately charting many areas and recording several islands and coastlines on Europe Europe

Europe is one of the seven traditional continent [i]s of the Earth [i]. ... 

an map Map

A map is a simplified depiction of a space [i], a navigational aid which highlights relations between ob ... 

s for the first time. His most notable accomplishments were the British Kingdom of Great Britain

Kingdom of Great Britain ... 

 discovery and claiming of the east coast of Australia Australia

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere [i] c ... 

; the European discovery of the Hawaiian Islands Hawaiian Islands

The Hawaiian Islands, once known as the Sandwich Islands, form an archipelago [i] of nineteen island [i] ... 

; and the first recorded circumnavigation Circumnavigation

To circumnavigate a place, such as an island, a continent, or the Earth [i], is to travel all the way ar ... 

 and mapping of Newfoundland Newfoundland

Newfoundland is a large island off the east coast of North America [i], and the most populous part o ... 

 and New Zealand New Zealand

New Zealand is a country in the south-western Pacific Ocean [i] consisting of two large islands and many ... 

.

Discussions

  Discussion Features

   Ask a question about 'James Cook'

   Start a new discussion about 'James Cook'

   Answer questions about 'James Cook'

   'James Cook' discussion forum

Timeline

1728   Born

1768   James Cook sets sail on his first voyage: 1768-1771

1769   James Cook arrives in Tahiti Tahiti

Tahiti is the largest island [i] of French Polynesia [i], located in the archipelago [i] of Society Islands [i] ... 

 on the ship HM Bark ''Endeavour'' HM Bark Endeavour

HMB Endeavour was a small 18th century British [i] sailing ship, famous for ... 

, preparing to observe the solar eclipse Solar eclipse

A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon [i] passes between Earth [i] and the Sun [i], thereby totally or pa ... 

 of the planet Venus Venus

Venus is the second-closest planet [i] to the Sun [i], orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days. ... 

, which took place on June 3rd. After the voyage, the data was found to be inaccurate in determining the distance between the Sun Sun

|+ The Sun   |+ |- ... 

 and Earth Earth

Earth is the third planet [i] in the solar system [i] in terms of distance from the Sun [i], and the fi ... 

.

1770   James Cook claims the eastern coast of New Holland New Holland (Australia)

New Holland is a historic [i] name for the island [i] continent [i] of Australia [i]. ... 

 (Australia Australia

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere [i] c ... 

) for Great Britain Great Britain

Great Britain is an island lying off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe [i] and to the east of Ireland [i] ... 

 .

1773   Captain James Cook becomes the first European explorer to cross the Antarctic Circle Antarctic Circle

*Solstice [i] *Obliquity of the Ecliptic [i] ... 

1776   Captain James Cook sets off from Plymouth Plymouth

Plymouth is a city [i] in the southwest [i] of England [i] ... 

 England on his third, and fatal, expedition to the Pacific Ocean Pacific Ocean

The Pacific Ocean is the world's largest body of water [i]. ... 

.

1777   Kiritimati Kiritimati

Kiritimati—also called Christmas Island but not to be confused with Christmas Island [i] ... 

 discovered by James Cook.

1778   Third Pacific Pacific Ocean

The Pacific Ocean is the world's largest body of water [i]. ... 

 expedition of Capt. James Cook, with ships ''HMS Resolution HMS Resolution

Twelve ships of the Royal Navy [i] have borne the name HMS Resolution: ... 

'' and ''HMS Discovery'', first view O'ahu Oahu

Oahu , the "Gathering Place", is the third largest of the Hawaiian Islands [i] and most populous i ... 

 then Kaua'i Kauai

Kauai is the oldest and fourth largest of the main Hawaiian Islands [i], having an area of 1,430.43 km. ... 

 in the Hawaiian Islands Hawaiian Islands

The Hawaiian Islands, once known as the Sandwich Islands, form an archipelago [i] of nineteen island [i] ... 

, which he names the "Sandwich Islands."

1778   In the Hawaiian Islands Hawaiian Islands

The Hawaiian Islands, once known as the Sandwich Islands, form an archipelago [i] of nineteen island [i] ... 

, Captain James Cook becomes the first European Europe

Europe is one of the seven traditional continent [i]s of the Earth [i]. ... 

 to discover Maui Maui

The island of Maui is the second-largest of the Hawaiian Islands [i] at 727 square miles. ... 

.

1779   Died

   More Events >>



Encyclopedia



Captain James Cook, FRS Royal Society

The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Socie... 

, RN Royal Navy

The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom [i] is the oldest of the British armed services [i] ... 

  was an English England

England is the largest and most populous constituent country [i] of the United Kingdom [i]. ... 

 explorer, navigator and cartographer. He made three voyages to the Pacific Ocean Pacific Ocean

The Pacific Ocean is the world's largest body of water [i]. ... 

, accurately charting many areas and recording several islands and coastlines on Europe Europe

Europe is one of the seven traditional continent [i]s of the Earth [i]. ... 

an map Map

A map is a simplified depiction of a space [i], a navigational aid which highlights relations between ob ... 

s for the first time. His most notable accomplishments were the British Kingdom of Great Britain

Kingdom of Great Britain
... 

 discovery and claiming of the east coast of Australia Australia

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere [i] c ... 

; the European discovery of the Hawaiian Islands Hawaiian Islands

The Hawaiian Islands, once known as the Sandwich Islands, form an archipelago [i] of nineteen island [i] ... 

; and the first recorded circumnavigation Circumnavigation

To circumnavigate a place, such as an island, a continent, or the Earth [i], is to travel all the way ar ... 

 and mapping of Newfoundland Newfoundland

Newfoundland is a large island off the east coast of North America [i], and the most populous part o ... 

 and New Zealand New Zealand

New Zealand is a country in the south-western Pacific Ocean [i] consisting of two large islands and many ... 

. Cook died in Hawaii Hawaii

Hawaii became the 50th state [i] of the United States [i] on August 21 [i], 1959 [i]. ... 

 in a with Hawaiians during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779.

Early life

James Cook was born in relatively humble circumstances at Marton in North Yorkshire North Yorkshire

North Yorkshire is a non-metropolitan county [i] within the Government Office Region [i] of Yorkshire and the Humber [i] ... 

, which today is within the town of Middlesbrough Middlesbrough

This is the article on the town, for the article on the football club see Middlesbrough F.C. [i]
... 

. Cook was one of five children born to a local woman and a Scottish Scotland

Scotland is a nation [i] in northwest Europe [i] and one of the constituent [i] countries [i] ... 

 immigrant farm labourer, Grace and James Sr. As a child, Cook moved with his family to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where he was educated at the local school , his studies financed by his father's employer. At 13 he began work with his father, who managed the farm.

In 1745, when he was 16, Cook left home to be apprenticed in a grocer Grocer

A grocer is a dealer in staple food [i]stuffs, such as meat [i]s, produce [i] or dairy product [i]s, and ... 

y/haberdashery in the fishing village of Staithes Staithes

Staithes is an English [i] village at the most northerly point of the North Yorkshire [i] coast
... 

. According to legend, Cook first felt the lure of the sea Sea

A sea is a large expanse of saline water [i] connected with an ocean [i], or a large, usually s... 

 while gazing out the shop window.

After a year and a half in Staithes, the shop's owner found James unsuited to the trade. Mr Sanderson took James to the nearby port town of Whitby Whitby

Whitby is a historic town in North Yorkshire [i] on the north-east coast of England [i] ... 

 and introduced him to John and Henry Walker. John and Henry were prominent local ship-owners and Quakers Religious Society of Friends

The Religious Society of Friends began in England [i] in the 17th century [i] by people who were dissati ... 

, and were in the coal trade business. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels plying coal along the English coast. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this, and various other coasters sailing between the Tyne River Tyne

The River Tyne is a river [i] in England [i]. ... 

 and London London

London is the capital [i] city of England [i] and of the United Kingdom [i]. ... 

.

For this new apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra Algebra

Algebra is a branch of mathematics [i] concerning the study of structure [i], relation [i] ... 

, trigonometry Trigonometry

Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics [i] dealing with angle [i]s, triangle [i]s and trigonometric function [i] ... 

, navigation Navigation

There are several traditions of navigation.... 

, and astronomy Astronomy

Astronomy is the science [i] of celestial objects and phenomena [i] that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere [i] ... 

, skills he would need one day to command his own ship.

His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea Baltic Sea

The Baltic Sea is located in Northern Europe [i], from 53N to 66N latitude [i] and from 20E to 26E longitude [i]... 

. He soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his 1752 promotion to Mate aboard the collier brig Brig

In sailing [i], a brig is a vessel with two masts [i] at least one of which is square rig [i]ged. ... 

 Friendship. In 1755 he was offered command of this vessel, but within the month he volunteered for service in the British Royal Navy Royal Navy

The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom [i] is the oldest of the British armed services [i] ... 

.

In 1755, the Kingdom of Great Britain was re-arming for what was to become the Seven Years' War Seven Years' War

The Seven Years' War, some of the theatres [i] of which are called the Pomeranian War and ... 

. Cook saw that his career could advance more quickly in military service. However, this required starting over in the naval hierarchy, and on June 17 he began as able seaman aboard HMS Eagle under the command of Captain Hugh Palliser Hugh Palliser

Admiral [i] Sir Hugh Palliser, 1st Baronet, RN [i] was an 18th-century [i] governor [i] of Newfoundland [i]... 

. He was very quickly promoted to Master's Mate.

Family life

Cook married Elizabeth Batts, the daughter of one of his mentors, on December 21, 1762. The couple would eventually have six children : James , Nathaniel , Elizabeth , Joseph , George and Hugh . When not at sea, James Cook settled in the East End of London East End of London

The East End of London, known locally as the East End, is part of London [i] in England [i]. ... 

. He attended St. Paul's Church, Shadwell, where his son James was baptised.

Start of Royal Navy career



During the Seven Years' War Seven Years' War

The Seven Years' War, some of the theatres [i] of which are called the Pomeranian War and ... 

, he participated in the siege of Quebec City Quebec City

Quebec City or Qubec* [i] is the capital [i] of the Canadian [i] ... 

 before the Battle of the Plains of Abraham Battle of the Plains of Abraham

The Battle of the Plains of Abraham, fought September 13 [i], 1759 [i], was a decisive battle of the North American [i] ... 

 in 1759. He showed a talent for surveying Surveying

Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional sp... 

 and cartography Cartography

Cartography or mapmaking is the study and practice of making map [i]s or globe [i]s. ... 

 and was responsible for mapping much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River Saint Lawrence River

The Saint Lawrence River is a large west-to-east flowing river [i] in the middle latitudes of North America [i] ... 

 during the siege, allowing General Wolfe James Wolfe

General James Wolfe was a British general, remembered mainly for his role in establishing British rule i... 

 to make his famous stealth attack on the Plains of Abraham Battle of the Plains of Abraham

The Battle of the Plains of Abraham, fought September 13 [i], 1759 [i], was a decisive battle of the North American [i] ... 

.

Cook's surveying Surveying

Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional sp... 

 skills were put to good use in the 1760s, mapping the jagged coast of Newfoundland Newfoundland

Newfoundland is a large island off the east coast of North America [i], and the most populous part o ... 

. Cook surveyed the northwest stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767. Cook’s five seasons in Newfoundland produced the first large-scale and accurate maps of the island’s coasts; they also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying, achieved under often adverse conditions, and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty Admiralty

The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the United Kingdom [i] responsible for the command of the Royal Navy [i]... 

 and Royal Society Royal Society

The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Socie... 

 at a crucial moment both in his personal career and in the direction of British overseas discovery.

Cook's huge achievements can be attributed to a combination of excellent seamanship, his superior surveying and cartographic skills, courage in exploring dangerous locations to confirm the facts , ability to lead men in adverse conditions, and boldness both with regard to the extent of his explorations and his willingness to exceed the instructions given to him by the Admiralty.

First voyage

In 1766, the Royal Society Royal Society

The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Socie... 

 hired Cook to travel to the Pacific Ocean Pacific Ocean

The Pacific Ocean is the world's largest body of water [i]. ... 

 to observe and record a transit of Venus Transit of Venus

A transit of Venus across the Sun [i] takes place when the planet [i] Venus [i] passes directly be ... 

 across the Sun Sun

|+ The Sun   |+
|-
... 

. Cook was commissioned as a Lieutenant Lieutenant

Lieutenant is a military [i], paramilitary [i], fire service [i] or police [i] officer [i] ... 

 and given command of HM Bark Endeavour HM Bark Endeavour

HMB Endeavour was a small 18th century British [i] sailing ship, famous for ... 

. He sailed from England in 1768, rounded Cape Horn Cape Horn

[i] [[archipelago]... 

 and continued westward across the Pacific to arrive at Tahiti Tahiti

Tahiti is the largest island [i] of French Polynesia [i], located in the archipelago [i] of Society Islands [i]... 

 on April 13, 1769, where the observations were to be made. The transit was scheduled to occur on June 3, and in the meantime he commissioned the building of a small fort Fortification

Fortifications are military [i] construction [i]s and building [i]s designed for defense [i] in ... 

 and observatory Observatory

An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial and/or celestial events.... 

.

The astronomer Astronomer

An astronomer or astrophysicist is a person whose area of interest is astronomy [i] or astrophysics [i] ... 

 appointed to the task was Charles Green, assistant to the recently-appointed Astronomer Royal, Nevil Maskelyne Nevil Maskelyne

The Reverend Dr Nevil Maskelyne was the fifth British [i] Astronomer Royal [i]. ... 

. The primary purpose of the observation was to obtain measurements which could be used to more accurately calculate the distance of Venus Venus

Venus is the second-closest planet [i] to the Sun [i], orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days. ... 

 from the Sun. If this could be achieved, then the distances of the other known planets could be worked out based on their relative orbits. On the day of the transit observation, Cook recorded:

"Saturday 3 rd This day prov'd as favourable to our purpose as we could wish, not a Clowd was to be seen the Whole day and the Air was perfectly clear, so that we had every advantage we could desire in Observing the whole of the passage of the Planet Venus over the Suns disk: we very distinctly saw an Atmosphere or dusky shade round the body of the Planet which very much disturbed the times of the contacts particularly the two internal ones. D r Solander observed as well as M r Green and my self, and we differ'd from one another in observeing the times of the Contacts much more than could be expected..."


Disappointingly, the separate measurements of Green, Cook and Solander varied more than the anticipated margin of error. Their instrumentation was adequate by the standards of the time, but the resolution still could not eliminate the errors. When their results were later compared to those of the other observations of the same event made elsewhere for the exercise, the net result was not as conclusive or accurate as had been hoped.


Once the observations were completed, Cook then departed in order to execute the second purpose of his voyage: namely, to search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated southern continent Continent

A continent is a large continuous landmass [i]. ... 

 of Terra Australis Terra Australis

Terra Australis was an imaginary continent, appearing on European maps from the 15th [i] t ... 

, acting on from the Commissioners for executing the office of the Lord High Admiral of Great Britain Admiralty

The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the United Kingdom [i] responsible for the command of the Royal Navy [i]... 

. The Royal Society, and especially Alexander Dalrymple, believed that it must exist, however Cook had his own personal doubts on the subject. With the help of a Tahitian named Tupaia, who had extensive knowledge of Pacific geography Geography

Geography is the study of the Earth's features and of the distribution of life on the earth, including ... 

, Cook managed to reach New Zealand New Zealand

New Zealand is a country in the south-western Pacific Ocean [i] consisting of two large islands and many ... 

 on 6 October, 1769, becoming only the second European Europe

Europe is one of the seven traditional continent [i]s of the Earth [i]. ... 

 in history to do so . Cook mapped the complete New Zealand coastline, making only some minor errors . He also discovered Cook Strait Cook Strait

Cook Strait is the strait [i] between the North Island [i] and the South Island [i] of New Zealand [i]. ... 

, which separates the North Island North Island

he North Island is one of the two main islands of New Zealand [i], the other being the South Island [i]. ... 

 from the South Island, and which Tasman had not seen.

He then set course westwards, intending to strike for Van Diemen's Land  in order to establish whether or not it formed part of the fabled southern continent. However, they were forced to maintain a more northerly course owing to prevailing gales, and sailed onwards until one afternoon when land was sighted, which Cook named Point Hicks. Cook calculated that Van Diemen's Land ought to lie due south of their position, but having found the coastline trending to the southwest, recorded his doubt that this landmass was connected to it. This point was on the southeastern coast of the Australia Australia

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere [i] c ... 

n continent, and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline. In his journal, Cook recorded the event thus:

"the Southermost Point of land we had in sight which bore from us W1/4S I judged to lay in the Latitude of 38°..0' S° and in the Longitude of 211°..07' W t from the Meridion of Greenwich. I have named it Point Hicks, because Leuit t Hicks was the first who discover'd this land".


The ship's log recorded that land was sighted at 6 a.m. Thursday April 19, 1770. Cook's log used the nautical date, which, during the eighteenth century, assigned the same date to all ship's events from noon-to-noon, first p.m. and then a.m. That nautical date began twelve hours before the midnight beginning of the like-named civil date. Furthermore, Cook did not adjust his nautical date to account for circumnavigation of the globe until he had traveled a full 360° relative to the longitude of his home British port, either toward the east or west. Because he traveled west on his first voyage, this a.m. nautical date was the morning of a civil date fourteen hours slow relative to his home port . Because the southeast coast of Australia is now regarded as being ten hours fast relative to Britain , 24 hours later, that date is now called Friday, April 20.

The landmark of this sighting is generally reckoned to be a point lying about half-way between the present-day towns of Orbost Orbost, Victoria

[i], [[Victoria|Victoria]... 

 and Mallacoota Mallacoota, Victoria

Mallacoota_region:AU-VIC}}) is a small town in the East Gippsland [i] region of Victoria, Australia [i]. ... 

 on the southeastern coast of the state of Victoria. A later survey done in 1843 ignored or overlooked Cook's earlier naming of the point, giving it the name Cape Everard. On the 200th anniversary of the sighting, the name was officially changed back to Point Hicks.



The Endeavour HM Bark Endeavour

HMB Endeavour was a small 18th century British [i] sailing ship, famous for ... 

 continued northwards along the coastline, keeping the land in sight and Cook charting and naming landmarks as he went. A little over a week later, they came across an extensive but shallow inlet, and upon entering it moored off a low headland fronted by sand dunes. It was here, on April 29, that Cook and crew made their first landfall on the continent, at a place now known as Kurnell. This date does not need adjustment because it occurred during the afternoon on April 29 in the ship's log, but was the afternoon of the civil date of April 28 14 hours west of port, which is now a civil date 10 hours east of port, 24 hours later, hence a modern civil date of April 29. At first Cook bestowed the name Stingaree Bay to the inlet after the many such creatures found there; this was later changed to Botanist Bay and finally Botany Bay Botany Bay

Botany Bay is a bay [i] in Sydney [i], New South Wales [i], Australia [i], a few kilo... 

after the unique specimens retrieved by the botanists Joseph Banks Joseph Banks

Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, PRS [i] was an English [i] naturalist [i] ... 

, Daniel Solander Daniel Solander

Daniel Carlsson Solander was a Swedish [i] botanist [i].
... 

 and Herman Spöring.

This first landing site was later to be promoted as a suitable candidate for situating a settlement and British colonial British overseas territories

A British overseas territory is one of 14 territories which are under the sovereignty [i] of the United Kingdom [i] ... 

 outpost. However, almost eighteen years after this first landing, when Captain Arthur Phillip Arthur Phillip

Admiral [i] Arthur Phillip, RN [i] was a British [i] naval [i] off... 

 and the First Fleet arrived in early 1788 to establish an outpost and penal colony, they found that the bay and surrounds did not live up to the promising picture which had been painted. Instead, Phillip shortly thereafter gave orders to relocate to a harbour a few kilometres to the north, which Cook had named Port Jackson Port Jackson

Port Jackson, containing Sydney Harbour, is the natural harbour [i] of Sydney [i], Australia [i] ... 

 but had not further explored. It was in this harbour at a place Phillip named Sydney Cove that the settlement of Sydney Sydney

Sydney is the most populous city in Australia [i] with a metropolitan area [i] population of over 4.2 m ... 

 was established. The settlement was for some time afterwards still referred to generally as Botany Bay. The expedition's scientific members commenced the first European scientific documentation of Australian fauna Fauna of Australia

The fauna of Australia consists of a huge variety of unique animal [i]s; some 83% of mammal [i]s, 89% of ... 

 and flora Flora of Australia

The flora of Australia is a vast assemblage of plant species estimated to over 20,000 vascular [i]... 

.

At Cook's original landing contact was made with the local Australian Aborigine Indigenous Australians

Indigenous Australians are the first human inhabitants of the Australia [i]n continent and its nearby is ... 

 inhabitants. As the ships sailed into the harbour, they noticed aborigines on both of the headlands. At about 2 p.m. they put the anchor down near a group of six to eight huts. Two aborigines, a younger and an older man, came down to the boat. They ignored gifts from Cook. A musket was fired over their heads, which wounded the older man slightly, and he ran towards the huts. He came back with other men and threw spears at Cook's men, although they did no harm. They were chased off after two more rounds were fired. The adults had left, but Cook found several Aboriginal children in the huts, and left some beads with them as a gesture of friendship.

Cook continued northwards, charting along the coastline. A mishap occurred when the Endeavour HM Bark Endeavour

HMB Endeavour was a small 18th century British [i] sailing ship, famous for ... 

 ran aground on a shoal of the Great Barrier Reef Great Barrier Reef

The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef [i] system, composed of roughly 3,000 individua ... 

, on June 11, 1770. The ship was seriously damaged and his voyage was delayed almost seven weeks while repairs were carried out on the beach . While there, Joseph Banks Joseph Banks

Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, PRS [i] was an English [i] naturalist [i] ... 

, Herman Spöring and Daniel Solander Daniel Solander

Daniel Carlsson Solander was a Swedish [i] botanist [i].
... 

 made their first major collections of Australian flora. The crew's encounters with the local Aboriginal people were mainly peaceable; from the group encountered here the name "kangaroo Kangaroo

A kangaroo is any of several large macropod [i]s . ... 

" was to be entered into the English language English language

English is a widely distributed language that originated in England [i] but is now the primary language ... 

, coming from the local Guugu Yimidhirr Guugu Yimithirr language

Guugu Yimithirr is an Australian Aboriginal language [i], the traditiona... 

 word for a kind of Grey Kangaroo Kangaroo

A kangaroo is any of several large macropod [i]s . ... 

, gangurru .

Once repairs were complete the voyage continued, eventually passing by the northern-most point of Cape York Peninsula Cape York Peninsula

Cape York Peninsula is a peninsula [i] in northern Queensland [i], Australia [i]. ... 

 and then sailing through Torres Strait Torres Strait

The Torres Strait is a body of water which lies between Australia [i] and the Melanesia [i]n island of New Guinea [i] ... 

 between Australia and New Guinea New Guinea

New Guinea, located just north of Australia [i], is the world's second largest [i] ... 

, earlier navigated by Luis Vaez de Torres in 1604.

At that point in the voyage, Cook had lost not a single man to scurvy Scurvy

Scurvy is a disease [i] that results from insufficient intake of vitamin C [i], which is required for c ... 

, a remarkable and practically unheard-of achievement in 18th century 18th century

As a means of recording the passage of time [i], the 18th century refers to the century [i] that las ... 

 long-distance sea-faring. Adhering to Royal Navy policy introduced in 1747, Cook persuaded his men to eat foods such as citrus Citrus

Citrus is a common term and genus [i] of flowering plant [i]s in the family Rutaceae [i], originatin ... 

 fruit Fruit

The term fruit has different meanings depending on context.... 

s and sauerkraut Sauerkraut

Sauerkraut is finely sliced white cabbage [i] fermented [i] by various lactic acid bacteria [i] ... 

. At that time it was known that poor diet caused scurvy but not specifically that a Vitamin C Vitamin C

Vitamin C is a water [i]-soluble [i] nutrient [i] and vitamin [i] essential ... 

 deficiency was the culprit.

The means by which he persuaded his crew, described here HM Bark Endeavour

HMB Endeavour was a small 18th century British [i] sailing ship, famous for ... 

, are illustrative of Cook's leadership qualities.

Cook then visited the island of Savu, staying for three days before continuing on to Batavia Jakarta

Jakarta , formerly known as Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta and Batavia is the capital [i] and ... 

, the capital of the Dutch East Indies Dutch East Indies

The Dutch East Indies, or Netherlands East Indies, was the name of the colonies [i] set up ... 

, to put in for repairs. Batavia was known for its outbreaks of malaria Malaria

Malaria is an infectious disease [i] that is widespread in many tropical [i] and subtropical re ... 

, and before they returned home in 1771, many in Cook's crew would succumb to the disease and other ailments such as dysentery, including the Tahitian Tupaia, Banks's Finnish Finland

The Republic of Finland , is one of the Nordic countries [i]. ... 

 secretary and a fellow scientist Herman Spöring, astronomer Charles Green, and the illustrator Sydney Parkinson Sydney Parkinson

Sydney Parkinson was a Scottish [i] botanical illustrator [i] and natural history [i] artist.
... 

. Cook had named the Spöring Island on the coast of New Zealand New Zealand

New Zealand is a country in the south-western Pacific Ocean [i] consisting of two large islands and many ... 

 to honor Herman Spöring and his work on the voyage.

The Endeavour HM Bark Endeavour

HMB Endeavour was a small 18th century British [i] sailing ship, famous for ... 

, his ship on this first voyage, would later lend its name to the Space Shuttle Endeavour Space Shuttle Endeavour

Space Shuttle Orbiter Endeavour , is the fifth and final operational NASA [i] space shuttle [i] to be bu ... 

, as well as the Endeavour River.

Cook's journals were published upon his return, and he became something of a hero among the scientific community. Among the general public, however, the aristocratic botanist Botany

Botany is the scientific study [i] of plant [i]life [i]. ... 

 Joseph Banks Joseph Banks

Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, PRS [i] was an English [i] naturalist [i] ... 

 was a bigger hero. Banks even attempted to take command of Cook's second voyage, but removed himself from the voyage before it began.


Second voyage

Shortly after his return, Cook was promoted from Lieutenant to Commander Commander

Commander is a military rank [i] used in many navies [i] but not generally in armies [i] or air force [i] ... 

 . Then once again he was commissioned by the Royal Society to search for the mythical Terra Australis. On his first voyage, Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was not attached to a larger landmass to the south; and although by charting almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia he had shown it to be continental in size, the Terra Australis being sought was supposed to lie further to the south. Despite this evidence to the contrary Dalrymple and others of the Royal Society still believed that this massive southern continent should exist.

Cook commanded HMS Resolution HMS Resolution

Twelve ships of the Royal Navy [i] have borne the name HMS Resolution:
... 

 on this voyage, while Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship, HMS Adventure. Cook's expedition circumnavigated Circumnavigation

To circumnavigate a place, such as an island, a continent, or the Earth [i], is to travel all the way ar ... 

 the globe at a very high southern latitude Latitude

Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter f [i] , gives the location of a place on ... 

, becoming one of the first to cross the Antarctic Circle Antarctic Circle

*Solstice [i]
  • Obliquity of the Ecliptic [i]

... 

 on January 17, 1773, reaching 71°10' south. He also discovered South Georgia South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands is an overseas territory [i] of ... 

 and the South Sandwich Islands South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands is an overseas territory [i] of ... 

. In the Antarctic fog, the Resolution and Adventure became separated. Furneaux made his way to New Zealand, where he lost some of his men following a fight with the Maori Maori

The word Maori refers to the indigenous people [i] of New Zealand [i] and to their language [i] ... 

, and eventually sailed back to Britain, while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic.

Cook almost discovered the mainland of Antarctica Antarctica

Antarctica is the southernmost continent and encompasses the South Pole [i]. ... 

, but turned back north towards Tahiti to resupply his ship. He then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent. On this leg of the voyage he brought with him a young Tahitian named Omai, who proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific than Tupaia had been on the first voyage. On his return voyage, in 1774 he landed at the Friendly Islands Tonga

Tonga, officially the Kingdom of Tonga, , is an independent archipelago [i] in the southern Pacific Ocean [i] ... 

, Easter Island Easter Island

Easter Island, known in the native language [i] as Rapa Nui or Isla de Pascu ... 

, Norfolk Island Norfolk Island

Norfolk Island is a small inhabited island in the Pacific Ocean [i] located between Australia [i], New Zealand [i] ... 

, New Caledonia New Caledonia

New Caledonia, the foreshortened form of Territory of New Caledonia and Dependencies , is a "sui generis [i] ... 

 and Vanuatu Vanuatu

Vanuatu, officially the Republic of Vanuatu, is a Melanesian [i] island nation [i] locat ... 

. His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis Terra Australis

Terra Australis was an imaginary continent, appearing on European maps from the 15th [i] t ... 

.

Another accomplishment of the second voyage was the successful employment of the K1 chronometer which facilitated accurate measurement of longitude.

Upon his return, Cook was promoted to the naval rank of Captain and given an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy . But Cook could not be kept away from the sea. A third voyage was planned to find the Northwest Passage Northwest Passage

The Northwest Passage is a sea route connecting the Atlantic [i] and Pacific Ocean [i]s t ... 

. Cook would travel to the Pacific and hoped to travel east to the Atlantic, while a simultaneous voyage would travel the opposite way.

Third voyage


On his last voyage, Cook once again commanded HMS Resolution, while Captain Charles Clerke commanded HMS Discovery. Ostensibly the voyage was planned to return Omai to Tahiti; this is what the general public believed, as he had become a favourite curiosity in London. After returning Omai, Cook travelled north and in 1778 became the first European to visit the Hawaiian Islands Hawaiian Islands

The Hawaiian Islands, once known as the Sandwich Islands, form an archipelago [i] of nineteen island [i] ... 

, which, in passing and after initial landfall in January 1778 at Waimea Waimea, Kauai County, Hawaii

Waimea is a census-designated place [i] in Kauai County [i], Hawaii [i], United States [i]... 

 harbor, Kauai Kauai

Kauai is the oldest and fourth largest of the main Hawaiian Islands [i], having an area of 1,430.43 km. ... 

, he named the "Sandwich Islands" after the 4th Earl of Sandwich Earl of Sandwich

The Earl of Sandwich is a title in the peerage [i] of England, created by Charles II [i] ... 

, the acting First Lord of the Admiralty Admiralty

The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the United Kingdom [i] responsible for the command of the Royal Navy [i]... 

.

From there, he travelled east to explore the west coast of North America North America

North America is a continent [i] in the Earth [i]'s northern hemisphere [i] and almost fully in the western hemisphere [i]... 

, eventually landing near the First Nation First Nations

First Nations is a term of ethnicity [i] used in Canada [i]. ... 

s village at Yuquot in Nootka Sound Nootka Sound

Nootka Sound is an inlet of the Pacific Ocean [i] and a natural harbour on the rugged west coast of Vancouver Island [i] ... 

 on Vancouver Island Vancouver Island

Vancouver Island is located off Canada [i]'s Pacific [i] coast and is part of the Canadian province [i] ... 

, although he unknowingly sailed past the Strait of Juan de Fuca Strait of Juan de Fuca

The Strait of Juan de Fuca is the principal outlet for the Georgia Strait [i] and Puget Sound [i] ... 

. He explored and mapped the coast from California California

California is a state [i] spanning the southern half of the west coast [i] ... 

 all the way to the Bering Strait Bering Strait

The Bering Strait is a sea strait [i] between Cape Dezhnev [i], Russia [i], the easternmost point of th ... 

, on the way discovering what came to be known as Cook Inlet Cook Inlet

The Cook Inlet or Nuti is a large inlet [i] of the Gulf of Alaska [i] in south-central Alaska [i]. ... 

 in Alaska Alaska

Alaska is a U.S. state [i], located on the northwest tier [i] of North America [i] ... 

.

The Bering Strait proved to be impassable, although he made several attempts to sail through it. Cook became increasingly frustrated on this voyage, and perhaps began to suffer from a stomach ailment; it is speculated that this led to irrational behaviour towards his crew, such as forcing them to eat walrus Walrus

Walruses are large semi-aquatic mammal [i]s that live in the cold Arctic [i] seas of the Northern Hemisphere [i] ... 

 meat — which they found inedible. .

Cook returned to Hawaii in 1779. After sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks, Cook finally made landfall at Kealakekua Bay Hawaii (island)

The Island of Hawaii is one of eight main islands that make up the U.S.... 

, on what is now the 'Big Island' Hawaii

Hawaii became the 50th state [i] of the United States [i] on August 21 [i], 1959 [i]. ... 

 of Hawaii Hawaii

Hawaii became the 50th state [i] of the United States [i] on August 21 [i], 1959 [i]. ... 

. There is some discussion by recent historians that Cook's arrival coincided by quirk of fate with a season of worship for the Polynesian god Lono, . Indeed the form of Cook's ship HMS Resolution resembled certain significant artifacts that formed part of the season of worship. Similarly, Cook's clockwise route around the islands before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals. For these reasons the arrival, it is thought, led to Cook's initial deification by the natives, who treated him with great reverence as possibly an incarnation of Lono himself. This interpretation of the natives' reaction, though, has been called into question.

Eventually, after a month's stay, Cook got undersail again to resume his exploration of the Northern Pacific. However, shortly after leaving the Big Island, the foremast on the Resolution broke requiring the ships' return to Kealakekua Bay for repairs. The return to the islands by Cook's expedition was unexpected on the part of the Hawaiians and as the season of Lono had recently ended, tensions rose and a number of quarrels broke out between the two camps. On February 14 at Kealakekua Bay, some Hawaiians stole one of Cook's small boats. Normally, as thefts were quite common in Tahiti and the other islands, Cook would have taken hostages until the stolen articles were returned. Indeed, he planned to take hostage the Chief of Hawaii, Kalaniopu'u. However, his stomach ailment and increasingly irrational behaviour led to an altercation with a large crowd of Hawaiians gathered on the beach when Cook went ashore to retrieve the goods. The villagers, angered by his strict insistence on getting back a pair of tongs, and hearing that another British search party had killed one of their chiefs, began to attack with spears and stones. In the ensuing skirmish, shots were fired at the Hawaiians but their woven war shields protected them, and Cook's men had to retreat to the beach. As Cook turned his back to help launch the boats, he was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf. The Hawaiians dragged his body away.

It is thought that Cook's return to Hawaii outside the season of worship for Lono -- which was synonymous with 'peace' -- and thus in the season of 'war' may have upset the equilibrium and fostered an atmosphere of resentment and aggression from the local population. Coupled with a jaded grasp of native diplomacy and a burgeoning but limited understanding of local politics, Cook may have inadvertently contributed to the tensions that ultimately conspired in his demise.

The esteem in which the Captain was nevertheless held by the natives resulted in his body being retained by their chiefs and elders and the flesh cut and roasted from his bones. Indeed some of Cook's remains, disclosing some corroborating evidence to this effect, were eventually returned to the British for a formal burial at sea Burial at sea

Burial at sea describes the procedure of disposing of human remains [i] in the ocean.
... 

 following an appeal by the crew.

Clerke took over the expedition and made a fina