Banksia integrifolia
Encyclopedia
Banksia integrifolia, commonly known as Coast Banksia, is a species
of tree
that grows along the east coast of Australia
. One of the most widely distributed Banksia
species, it occurs between Victoria
and Central Queensland
in a broad range of habitats
, from coastal dune
s to mountain
s. It is highly variable in form, but is most often encountered as a tree up to 25 metres (82 ft) in height. Its leaves
have dark green upper surfaces and white undersides, a contrast that can be striking on windy days.
It is one of the four original Banksia species collected by Sir Joseph Banks
in 1770, and one of four species published in 1782 as part of Carolus Linnaeus the Younger
's original description of the genus. It has had a complicated taxonomic
history, with numerous species and varieties ascribed to it, only to be rejected or promoted to separate species. The taxonomy is now largely settled, with three subspecies
recognised: B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia
, B. integrifolia subsp. compar
and B. integrifolia subsp. monticola
.
A hardy and versatile garden
plant, B. integrifolia is widely planted in Australian gardens. It is a popular choice for parks and streetscapes, and has been used for bush revegetation
and stabilisation of dunes. Its hardiness has prompted research into its suitability for use as a rootstock
in the cut flower trade
, but has also caused concerns about its potential to become a weed
outside its natural habitat.
It was known to Indigenous Australians
before its discovery and naming by Europe
ans; for example, the Gunai
people of Gippsland
called it Birrna. Because of its wide range it would have a name in a number of other indigenous languages
, but these are now lost. In 2001, a search of historical archives for recorded indigenous names of Victorian flora and fauna failed to find a single name for the species.
.
It usually has a single stout trunk, which is often twisted and gnarled, with the rough grey bark characteristic of Banksia. The leaves are dark green with a white underside, and occur in whorls
of three to five. Adult leaves have entire margins; George specifies their dimensions as 4 to 20 centimetres (2–8 in) long and 6 to 35 millimetres (0.2–1.4 in) wide, but The Banksia Atlas
warns that "Atlas contributors found great variability in these measurements with specimens often falling outside the varietal limits specified by George (1981) or being intermediate between two varieties." Juvenile leaves have dentate margins with a few short teeth, and are generally larger than adult leaves.
Flower
s occur in Banksias characteristic "flower spike", an inflorescence
made up of several hundred flowers densely packed in a spiral
around a woody axis. This is roughly cylindrical, 10 to 12 centimetres (4–5 in) high and five centimetres (2 in) wide. Flowers are usually pale yellow to yellow, but may be greenish or pinkish in bud. Each individual flower consists of a tubular perianth
made up of four united tepal
s, and one long wiry style. Characteristic of the taxonomic section in which it is placed, the styles are straight rather than hooked. The style ends are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts, but break free at anthesis
. This process starts with the flowers at the bottom of the inflorescence, sweeping up the spike at an unusually high rate of between 96 and 390 flowers per 24 hours.
The flower spikes are not as prominent as in some other Banksia species, as they arise from two- to three-year-old nodes nested within the foliage. After flowering, old flower parts wither and fall away over a period of several months, revealing the "cone", a woody axis embedded with many small follicles
. The follicles are initially greenish and downy, but gradually fade to dark grey. Each follicle contains one or sometimes two seed
s, separated by a thin wooden separator. The seed itself is black, 6 to 10 millimetres (0.2–0.4 in) long with a feathery black 'wing' 10 to 20 millimetres (0.4–0.8 in) long.
B. integrifolia was first collected at Botany Bay
on 29 April 1770, by Sir Joseph Banks
and Dr Daniel Solander
, naturalists on the Endeavour
during Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook
's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean
. However, the species was not published until April 1782, when Carolus Linnaeus the Younger
described the first four Banksia species in his Supplementum Plantarum
. Linnaeus distinguished the species by their leaf shapes, and named them accordingly. Thus the species with entire leaf margins was given the specific name integrifolia, from the Latin integer, meaning "entire", and folium, meaning "leaf". The full name for the species is therefore Banksia integrifolia L.f.
Then followed around 200 years of confusion over the taxonomic limits of the species, caused by the species' great variability, similarities with closely related species, and early attempts to classify the species based on dried specimen material alone. A stable Banksia taxonomy did not begin to emerge until 1981 with the publication of Alex George
's landmark monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)
. Over the next 18 years, George's arrangement was gradually refined in the light of new research and the discovery of new material, and there were several changes to B. integrifolia's infraspecific taxa. These changes culminated in George's 1999 arrangement, which had broad acceptance until 2005, when Austin Mast
, Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published a phylogeny that did not accord with George's arrangement. A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time, but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra
to Banksia, and publishing B. subg. Spathulatae
for the species having spoon-shaped cotyledon
s. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling
of Dryandra was complete; in the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B. integrifolia is placed in B. subg. Spathulatae; indeed, it is the type species for the subgenus.
book series. In this arrangement, B. integrifolia is placed in Banksia subg. Banksia
, because its inflorescences take the form of Banksia' s characteristic flower spikes; Banksia sect. Banksia
because of its straight styles; and Banksia ser. Salicinae
because its inflorescences are cylindrical. Kevin Thiele additionally placed it in a subseries Integrifoliae, but this was not supported by George.
B. integrifolia' s placement within Banksia may be summarised as follows:
Although some of the great variability of B. integrifolia can be attributed to environmental factors, much is genetic
: George writes that it "gives the impression that it is actively speciating to fill the many ecological niches through its range". Three subspecies are currently recognised: B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia
, B. integrifolia subsp. compar
, and B. integrifolia subsp. monticola
.
Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia: The nominate subspecies occurs near the coast over most of the species' range except the far north. It varies little except in northern New South Wales
and southern Queensland
, where some populations appear to be intermediate with B. integrifolia subsp. compar.
Banksia integrifolia subsp. compar: This subspecies grows in coastal Queensland as far north as Proserpine
. For most of its range it is the only subspecies, but near its southern limit it co-occurs with B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia. The two subspecies are distinguishable by their leaves, which are larger and glossy with wavy margins on B. integrifolia subsp. compar.
Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola: Commonly known as White Mountain Banksia, it is the only subspecies with a montane
distribution; it occurs in the Blue Mountains of northern New South Wales. It is similar in form to B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia, but differs in having longer, narrower leaves, and follicles that are more deeply embedded in the old flower spike.
, although no hybrid name
s have been formally published to date. Presumed hybrids are identified by their intermediate features; for example those with B. paludosa
(Swamp Banksia), known from Jervis Bay
and Green Cape
on the coast of southern New South Wales, have a smaller habit, longer, thinner flower spikes, and persistent old flowers on old "cones", which are otherwise bare on pure B. integrifolia.
Presumed hybrids with B. marginata
(Silver Banksia) occur on Wilsons Promontory
in Victoria; these are found in localities where both species co-occur, and have features intermediate between the two. Another purported hybrid with B. marginata, thought to be from Cape Paterson
on Victoria's south coast, was first described by Alf Salkin and is commercially available in small quantities. It forms an attractive hardy low-growing plant to 1 metre.
B. integrifolia is widely distributed, in both geographical
and ecological
terms. According to Alex George, "it spans a wider geographical and climatic
range than any other species." Thiele and Ladiges make a similar claim: that its distribution "is a broader latitudinal, altitudinal and ecological amplitude than any other species, with the possible exception of B. spinulosa
."
It occurs along almost the entire eastern coast of Australia, from Geelong
, Victoria
to Proserpine
, Queensland
. There was an isolated population on Long Island
, Tasmania
in 1999, and an 1876 record allegedly from King Island, although there has been speculation that that specimen was actually collected in the Furneaux Group. The species no longer occurs at any of these Tasmania locations, and has been declared extinct in Tasmania under that state's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995
. The range of latitude is thus about 20 to 38°S.
For most of its distribution, B. integrifolia occurs only within about 50 kilometres (30 mi) of the coast, where it typically occurs on poor quality sandy soils derived from sandstone
. It grows near coastal cliffs and headlands, alongside river estuaries
, and even on stabilised sand dunes. The temperature range for this area is around 0–30 °C (30–85 °F), with almost no frost
s. The species can occur in pure stands, but is usually associated with other species such as Melaleuca quinquenervia
(Broad-leaved Paperbark).
Between Sydney
and Brisbane
, B. integrifolia is found up to 200 kilometres (125 mi) inland, with B. integrifolia subsp. monticola occurring in the Blue Mountains at altitudes up to 1500 metres (5000 ft). There it grows on better quality volcanic or rocky soils derived from granite
s and basalt
s, and would experience up to 100 frosts per year. In this montane habitat, it occurs in association with Eucalyptus
species such as E. viminalis (Manna Gum) and E. pauciflora
(Snow Gum), and also rainforest
species such as Nothofagus moorei
(Antarctic Beech) and Orites excelsa
(Prickly Ash).
Interestingly, no other species of tree occurs closer to the coast at Cape Byron
, making B. integrifolia the most easterly tree on the Australian mainland.
Like most other Proteaceae
, B. integrifolia has proteoid root
s, roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These enhance solubilisation
of nutrients, thus allowing nutrient uptake in low-nutrient soils such as the phosphorus
-deficient native soils of Australia. Studies on B. integrifolia suggest that its proteoid root mat achieves this by chemically modifying its soil environment.
B. integrifolia flowers have an unusually short life span for Banksia species, producing nectar for only about four to twelve days after anthesis. Most nectar is produced during the night and early in the morning, with only small amounts produced during the day. Flowers are produced all through the year, but there is a strong peak in autumn. Little else flowers within its range at this time, so it is a seasonally important source of food for nectariferous
animals. Surveys have observed a range of animals feeding on the species, including a wide range of insect
s; many species of bird including Phylidonyris novaehollandiae (New Holland Honeyeater), Anthochaera carunculata (Red Wattlebird), Anthochaera chrysoptera (Little Wattlebird), Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris (Eastern Spinebill) and Trichoglossus haematodus (Rainbow Lorikeet); and mammals such as Petaurus norfolcensis (Squirrel Glider), Petaurus breviceps (Sugar Glider), Acrobates pygmaeus (Feathertail Glider) and Pteropus poliocephalus (Grey-headed Flying Fox). In some areas such as at Bungawalbin National Park
in northern New South Wales, B. integrifolia is the only source of nectar and pollen in the autumn (March-April) and late winter (July). The importance of non-flying mammals to pollination of B. integrifolia was demonstrated in 1989, with a study in Wilsons Promontory National Park
showing a reduction of fruit set when measures were taken to exclude them.
Unlike most Banksia species, B. integrifolia does not require bushfire to trigger the release of its seed. Rather, seed is released spontaneously on reaching maturity in late summer. The species' non-reliance on fire for seed dispersal suggests that the exclusion of fire would not affect plant populations, but a number of studies have found the opposite to be true: in areas where fire has been excluded for many years, populations have declined substantially. An investigation into the defoliation and premature death of trees on the Yanakie Isthmus
in south Victoria reached the tentative conclusion that the absence of fire had created unhealthy surface soil conditions. On the Mornington Peninsula
, surveys of an area that had not been burnt since the 1890s found that B. integrifolia densities fell by 77% between 1977 and 2000. A subsequent study found the decline to have been caused by extremely high seedling mortality rates, due to grazing by herbivore
s and intense competition for soil moisture during summer. Despite acknowledging that "the role of fire in these systems remains unclear", it concluded that "developing fire and/or grazing management regimes will be necessary to conserve the structural integrity of these coastal ecosystems."
These concerns aside, B. integrifolia does not appear to be under threat. It has excellent resistance to Phytophthora cinnamomi
dieback, which poses a major threat to many other Banksia species; and its wide distribution protects against the threat of habitat loss due to land clearing. As a result, it does not appear on the list of threatened Australian plants under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
.
Hardy and versatile, B. integrifolia will grow in clay
, sand
, acid
and even alkali
ne soils, and it shows good resistance to wind and salt
, making it suitable for seaside planting. It is therefore highly regarded as a low-maintenance garden tree, although its large size makes it unsuitable for smaller gardens. Its hardiness may however forewarn weed potential, as some evidence of weediness has been seen in Western Australia
and New Zealand
. When growing near bushland within its native habitat, it is recommended to obtain local provenance seed or plants if available.
The most common form available in commercial nurseries is unimproved Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia. It prefers a sunny aspect without exposure to frosts, and tolerates fairly heavy pruning
. Seeds do not require any treatment, and take 5 to 6 weeks to germinate. Flowering begins at around four to six years from seed. The other subspecies are less well known in cultivation, but are obtainable. Cultivation is presumably similar to B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia, except that B. integrifolia subsp. monticola may be assumed frost-tolerant. Dwarf
forms of B. integrifolia are sometimes sold, and a registered prostrate cultivar
, Banksia 'Roller Coaster'
, is available. The latter is a vigorous ground-hugging plant that can spread to 4 or 5 metres across yet remains only 50 centimetres high.
Because of its high resistance to P. cinnamomi dieback, the feasibility of using B. integrifolia as a rootstock for susceptible Banksia species in the cut flower trade
is under investigation. Presently, the success rate for grafting is only 30–40%, and even with successful grafts there is a tendency for the union to fail under stress. More research is needed before the technique will be ready for commercial use.
The wood
of B. integrifolia is pink to red, with inconspicuous rings and conspicuous rays. It is spongy and porous, with a density of around 530 kilograms per cubic metre (33 lb/ft³). It is considered highly decorative, but it warps badly on drying, has poor load-bearing qualities, and is susceptible to termite
attack; it is therefore unsuitable for most construction purposes. It is sometimes used for cabinet panelling and in ornamental turnery
, and natural bends were once sought after for making boat knees
. It is a useful firewood
.
B. integrifolia produces a dark amber-coloured honey of middling quality and therefore low commercial value. Despite this, the species is highly valued by beekeepers
because it produces large amounts of pollen and nectar during autumn and winter, thus helping support hives
at a time when little else is flowering.
Historically, indigenous Australians
obtained nectar from B. integrifolia by stroking the flower spikes then licking their hands, or by steeping flower spikes in a coolamon
overnight. They also used the flower spikes as hairbrush
es. Early settlers used the nectar as a syrup for sore throats and colds; and bushmen would impregnate barren "cones" with fat to make a slow-burning candle
.
More recently, B. integrifolia has been used in the art of bonsai
. Its rangy habit and long internodes are challenging to overcome, but the leaves do reduce with pruning, and unlike the gnarlier B. serrata
(Saw Banksia) its trunk can become textured with age.
It is used as a floral emblem
by two Local Government Areas of Queensland
: the City of Redcliffe
and the City of Logan
. In 2000 it was featured on an Australian postage stamp
.
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
of tree
Tree
A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance. A minimum height specification at maturity is cited by some authors, varying from 3 m to...
that grows along the east coast of Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
. One of the most widely distributed Banksia
Banksia
Banksia is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes and fruiting "cones" and heads. When it comes to size, banksias range from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up...
species, it occurs between Victoria
Victoria (Australia)
Victoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically the smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania on Boundary Islet to the north, west and south respectively....
and Central Queensland
Central Queensland
Central Queensland is an ambiguous geographical division of Queensland that centres on the eastern coast, around the Tropic of Capricorn. Its major regional centre is Rockhampton and the Capricorn Coast and the area extends west to the Central Highlands at Emerald, north to the Mackay Regional...
in a broad range of habitats
Habitat (ecology)
A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant or other type of organism...
, from coastal dune
Dune
In physical geography, a dune is a hill of sand built by wind. Dunes occur in different forms and sizes, formed by interaction with the wind. Most kinds of dunes are longer on the windward side where the sand is pushed up the dune and have a shorter "slip face" in the lee of the wind...
s to mountain
Mountain
Image:Himalaya_annotated.jpg|thumb|right|The Himalayan mountain range with Mount Everestrect 58 14 160 49 Chomo Lonzorect 200 28 335 52 Makalurect 378 24 566 45 Mount Everestrect 188 581 920 656 Tibetan Plateaurect 250 406 340 427 Rong River...
s. It is highly variable in form, but is most often encountered as a tree up to 25 metres (82 ft) in height. Its leaves
Leaf
A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant, as defined in botanical terms, and in particular in plant morphology. Foliage is a mass noun that refers to leaves as a feature of plants....
have dark green upper surfaces and white undersides, a contrast that can be striking on windy days.
It is one of the four original Banksia species collected by Sir Joseph Banks
Joseph Banks
Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, GCB, PRS was an English naturalist, botanist and patron of the natural sciences. He took part in Captain James Cook's first great voyage . Banks is credited with the introduction to the Western world of eucalyptus, acacia, mimosa and the genus named after him,...
in 1770, and one of four species published in 1782 as part of Carolus Linnaeus the Younger
Carolus Linnaeus the Younger
Carl Linnaeus the Younger, Carl von Linné or Carolus Linnaeus the Younger was a Swedish naturalist...
's original description of the genus. It has had a complicated taxonomic
Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a classification. The field of taxonomy, sometimes referred to as "biological taxonomy", revolves around the description and use of taxonomic units, known as taxa...
history, with numerous species and varieties ascribed to it, only to be rejected or promoted to separate species. The taxonomy is now largely settled, with three subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
recognised: B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia
Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia
Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia is a subspecies of Banksia integrifolia.-Description:B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia can be distinguished from the other subspecies of B. integrifolia by its slightly smaller, broader leaves, which are also somewhat duller than those of...
, B. integrifolia subsp. compar
Banksia integrifolia subsp. compar
Banksia integrifolia subsp. compar is a subspecies of Banksia integrifolia. It has larger, glossier leaves than other subspecies, and occurs much further north.-Description:...
and B. integrifolia subsp. monticola
Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola
Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola, commonly known as White Mountain Banksia, is a subspecies of Banksia integrifolia. Described in 1994, it occurs in the Blue Mountains in northern New South Wales. It contains the largest recorded Banksia trees.-Description:B. integrifolia subsp. monticola...
.
A hardy and versatile garden
Garden
A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the display, cultivation, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The garden can incorporate both natural and man-made materials. The most common form today is known as a residential garden, but the term garden has...
plant, B. integrifolia is widely planted in Australian gardens. It is a popular choice for parks and streetscapes, and has been used for bush revegetation
Revegetation
Revegetation is the process of replanting and rebuilding the soil of disturbed land. This may be a natural process produced by plant colonization and succession, or an artificial , accelerated process designed to repair damage to a landscape due to wildfire, mining, flood, or other cause...
and stabilisation of dunes. Its hardiness has prompted research into its suitability for use as a rootstock
Rootstock
A rootstock is a plant, and sometimes just the stump, which already has an established, healthy root system, used for grafting a cutting or budding from another plant. The tree part being grafted onto the rootstock is usually called the scion...
in the cut flower trade
Floriculture
Floriculture, or flower farming, is a discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry...
, but has also caused concerns about its potential to become a weed
Weed
A weed in a general sense is a plant that is considered by the user of the term to be a nuisance, and normally applied to unwanted plants in human-controlled settings, especially farm fields and gardens, but also lawns, parks, woods, and other areas. More specifically, the term is often used to...
outside its natural habitat.
Names
Now widely known as Coast Banksia or Coastal Banksia, B. integrifolia was previously known by a range of common names. The Checklist of Australian Trees lists four other common names: Honeysuckle, White Banksia, White Bottlebrush and White Honeysuckle; and some older sources refer to it as Honeysuckle Oak.It was known to Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. The Aboriginal Indigenous Australians migrated from the Indian continent around 75,000 to 100,000 years ago....
before its discovery and naming by Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
ans; for example, the Gunai
Gunai
The Gunai or Kurnai is an Indigenous Australian nation of south-east Australia whose territory occupied most of present-day Gippsland and much of the southern slopes of the Victorian Alps. The nation was not on friendly terms with the neighbouring Wurundjeri and Bunurong nations...
people of Gippsland
Gippsland
Gippsland is a large rural region in Victoria, Australia. It begins immediately east of the suburbs of Melbourne and stretches to the New South Wales border, lying between the Great Dividing Range to the north and Bass Strait to the south...
called it Birrna. Because of its wide range it would have a name in a number of other indigenous languages
Australian Aboriginal languages
The Australian Aboriginal languages comprise several language families and isolates native to the Australian Aborigines of Australia and a few nearby islands, but by convention excluding the languages of Tasmania and the Torres Strait Islanders...
, but these are now lost. In 2001, a search of historical archives for recorded indigenous names of Victorian flora and fauna failed to find a single name for the species.
Description
B. integrifolia is a highly variable species. It is most often encountered as a tree up to 25 metres (80 ft) in height, but in sheltered locations it can reach 35 metres (110 ft). In more exposed areas it may grow as a small, gnarled tree, reaching to no more than about 5 metres (15 ft), and in highly exposed positions, such as on exposed coastal headlands, it may even be reduced to a small shrubShrub
A shrub or bush is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and shorter height, usually under 5–6 m tall. A large number of plants may become either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience...
.
It usually has a single stout trunk, which is often twisted and gnarled, with the rough grey bark characteristic of Banksia. The leaves are dark green with a white underside, and occur in whorls
Whorl (botany)
In botany, a whorl is an arrangement of sepals, petals, leaves, or branches in which all the parts are attached at the same point and surround or wrap around the stem.There are four whorls in a general flower...
of three to five. Adult leaves have entire margins; George specifies their dimensions as 4 to 20 centimetres (2–8 in) long and 6 to 35 millimetres (0.2–1.4 in) wide, but The Banksia Atlas
The Banksia Atlas
The Banksia Atlas is an atlas that documents the ranges, habitats and growth forms of various species and other subgeneric taxa of Banksia, an iconic Australian wildflower genus...
warns that "Atlas contributors found great variability in these measurements with specimens often falling outside the varietal limits specified by George (1981) or being intermediate between two varieties." Juvenile leaves have dentate margins with a few short teeth, and are generally larger than adult leaves.
Flower
Flower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants . The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs...
s occur in Banksias characteristic "flower spike", an inflorescence
Inflorescence
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Strictly, it is the part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed and which is accordingly modified...
made up of several hundred flowers densely packed in a spiral
Helix
A helix is a type of smooth space curve, i.e. a curve in three-dimensional space. It has the property that the tangent line at any point makes a constant angle with a fixed line called the axis. Examples of helixes are coil springs and the handrails of spiral staircases. A "filled-in" helix – for...
around a woody axis. This is roughly cylindrical, 10 to 12 centimetres (4–5 in) high and five centimetres (2 in) wide. Flowers are usually pale yellow to yellow, but may be greenish or pinkish in bud. Each individual flower consists of a tubular perianth
Perianth
The term perianth has two similar but separate meanings in botany:* In flowering plants, the perianth are the outer, sterile whorls of a flower...
made up of four united tepal
Tepal
Tepals are elements of the perianth, or outer part of a flower, which include the petals or sepals. The term tepal is more often applied specifically when all segments of the perianth are of similar shape and color, or undifferentiated, which is called perigone...
s, and one long wiry style. Characteristic of the taxonomic section in which it is placed, the styles are straight rather than hooked. The style ends are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts, but break free at anthesis
Anthesis
Anthesis is the period during which a flower is fully open and functional. It may also refer to the onset of that period.The onset of anthesis is spectacular in some species. In Banksia species, for example, anthesis involves the extension of the style far beyond the upper perianth parts...
. This process starts with the flowers at the bottom of the inflorescence, sweeping up the spike at an unusually high rate of between 96 and 390 flowers per 24 hours.
The flower spikes are not as prominent as in some other Banksia species, as they arise from two- to three-year-old nodes nested within the foliage. After flowering, old flower parts wither and fall away over a period of several months, revealing the "cone", a woody axis embedded with many small follicles
Follicle (fruit)
In botany, a follicle is a dry unilocular many-seeded fruit formed from one carpel and dehiscing by the ventral suture in order to release seeds, such as in larkspur, magnolia, banksia, peony and milkweed....
. The follicles are initially greenish and downy, but gradually fade to dark grey. Each follicle contains one or sometimes two seed
Seed
A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant...
s, separated by a thin wooden separator. The seed itself is black, 6 to 10 millimetres (0.2–0.4 in) long with a feathery black 'wing' 10 to 20 millimetres (0.4–0.8 in) long.
Taxonomy
Botany Bay
Botany Bay is a bay in Sydney, New South Wales, a few kilometres south of the Sydney central business district. The Cooks River and the Georges River are the two major tributaries that flow into the bay...
on 29 April 1770, by Sir Joseph Banks
Joseph Banks
Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, GCB, PRS was an English naturalist, botanist and patron of the natural sciences. He took part in Captain James Cook's first great voyage . Banks is credited with the introduction to the Western world of eucalyptus, acacia, mimosa and the genus named after him,...
and Dr Daniel Solander
Daniel Solander
Daniel Carlsson Solander or Daniel Charles Solander was a Swedish naturalist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus. Solander was the first university educated scientist to set foot on Australian soil.-Biography:...
, naturalists on the Endeavour
HM Bark Endeavour
HMS Endeavour, also known as HM Bark Endeavour, was a British Royal Navy research vessel commanded by Lieutenant James Cook on his first voyage of discovery, to Australia and New Zealand from 1769 to 1771....
during Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook
James Cook
Captain James Cook, FRS, RN was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer who ultimately rose to the rank of captain in the Royal Navy...
's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean
Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south, bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, and the Americas in the east.At 165.2 million square kilometres in area, this largest division of the World...
. However, the species was not published until April 1782, when Carolus Linnaeus the Younger
Carolus Linnaeus the Younger
Carl Linnaeus the Younger, Carl von Linné or Carolus Linnaeus the Younger was a Swedish naturalist...
described the first four Banksia species in his Supplementum Plantarum
Supplementum Plantarum
Supplementum Plantarum Systematis Vegetabilium Editionis Decimae Tertiae, Generum Plantarum Editiones Sextae, et Specierum Plantarum Editionis Secundae, commonly abbreviated to Supplementum Plantarum Systematis Vegetabilium or just Supplementum Plantarum, and further abbreviated by botanists to...
. Linnaeus distinguished the species by their leaf shapes, and named them accordingly. Thus the species with entire leaf margins was given the specific name integrifolia, from the Latin integer, meaning "entire", and folium, meaning "leaf". The full name for the species is therefore Banksia integrifolia L.f.
Then followed around 200 years of confusion over the taxonomic limits of the species, caused by the species' great variability, similarities with closely related species, and early attempts to classify the species based on dried specimen material alone. A stable Banksia taxonomy did not begin to emerge until 1981 with the publication of Alex George
Alex George
Alexander Segger George is a Western Australian botanist. He is the authority on the plant genera Banksia and Dryandra...
's landmark monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)
The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)
The genus Banksia L.f. is a 1981 monograph by Alex George on the taxonomy of the plant genus Banksia. Published by the Western Australian Herbarium as Nuytsia 3, it presented George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia, the first major taxonomic revision of the genus since George Bentham published...
. Over the next 18 years, George's arrangement was gradually refined in the light of new research and the discovery of new material, and there were several changes to B. integrifolia's infraspecific taxa. These changes culminated in George's 1999 arrangement, which had broad acceptance until 2005, when Austin Mast
Austin Mast
Austin R. Mast is a research botanist. Born in 1972, he obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 2000. He is currently an associate professor within the Department of Biological Science at Florida State University , and has been director of FSU's since August 2003.One of his...
, Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published a phylogeny that did not accord with George's arrangement. A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time, but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra
Dryandra
Banksia ser. Dryandra is a series of 94 species of shrub to small tree in the plant genus Banksia. It was considered a separate genus named Dryandra until early 2007, when it was merged into Banksia on the basis of extensive molecular and morphological evidence that Banksia was paraphyletic with...
to Banksia, and publishing B. subg. Spathulatae
Banksia subg. Spathulatae
Banksia subg. Spathulatae is a valid botanic name for a subgenus of Banksia. It was published in 2007 by Austin Mast and Kevin Thiele, and defined as containing all those Banksia species having spathulate cotyledons...
for the species having spoon-shaped cotyledon
Cotyledon
A cotyledon , is a significant part of the embryo within the seed of a plant. Upon germination, the cotyledon may become the embryonic first leaves of a seedling. The number of cotyledons present is one characteristic used by botanists to classify the flowering plants...
s. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling
Sampling (statistics)
In statistics and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a population to estimate characteristics of the whole population....
of Dryandra was complete; in the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B. integrifolia is placed in B. subg. Spathulatae; indeed, it is the type species for the subgenus.
Placement within Banksia
The current taxonomic arrangement of the Banksia genus is based on George's 1999 monograph for the Flora of AustraliaFlora of Australia (series)
The Flora of Australia is a 59 volume series describing the vascular plants, bryophytes and lichens present in Australia and its external territories...
book series. In this arrangement, B. integrifolia is placed in Banksia subg. Banksia
Banksia subg. Banksia
Banksia subg. Banksia is a valid botanic name for a subgenus of Banksia. As an autonym, it necessarily contains the type species of Banksia, B. serrata . Within this constraint, however, there have been various circumscriptions.-Banksia verae:B. subg...
, because its inflorescences take the form of Banksia
Banksia sect. Banksia
Banksia sect. Banksia is one of four sections of Banksia subgenus Banksia. It contains those species of subgenus Banksia with straight or sometimes curved but not hooked styles. These species all have cylindrical inflorescences and usually exhibit a bottom-up sequence of flower anthesis...
because of its straight styles; and Banksia ser. Salicinae
Banksia ser. Salicinae
Banksia ser. Salicinae is a valid botanic name for a series of Banksia. First published by Carl Meissner in 1856, the name has had three circumscriptions.-According to Meissner:...
because its inflorescences are cylindrical. Kevin Thiele additionally placed it in a subseries Integrifoliae, but this was not supported by George.
- Genus BanksiaBanksiaBanksia is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes and fruiting "cones" and heads. When it comes to size, banksias range from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up...
- Subgenus IsostylisBanksia subg. IsostylisBanksia subg. Isostylis is a subgenus of Banksia. It contains three closely related species, all of which occur only in Southwest Western Australia. Members of subgenus Isostylis have dome-shaped flower heads that are superficially similar to those of B. ser...
- Subgenus BanksiaBanksia subg. BanksiaBanksia subg. Banksia is a valid botanic name for a subgenus of Banksia. As an autonym, it necessarily contains the type species of Banksia, B. serrata . Within this constraint, however, there have been various circumscriptions.-Banksia verae:B. subg...
- Section OncostylisBanksia sect. OncostylisBanksia sect. Oncostylis is one of four sections of subgenus Banksia subg. Banksia. It contains those Banksia species with hooked pistils. All of the species in Oncostylis also exhibit a top-down sequence of flower anthesis, except for Banksia nutans which is bottom-up.Banksia sect...
- Section CoccineaBanksia coccineaBanksia coccinea, commonly known as the Scarlet Banksia, Waratah Banksia or Albany Banksia, is an erect shrub or small tree in the plant genus Banksia...
- Section BanksiaBanksia sect. BanksiaBanksia sect. Banksia is one of four sections of Banksia subgenus Banksia. It contains those species of subgenus Banksia with straight or sometimes curved but not hooked styles. These species all have cylindrical inflorescences and usually exhibit a bottom-up sequence of flower anthesis...
- Series GrandesBanksia ser. GrandesBanksia ser. Grandes is a taxonomic series in the genus Banksia. It consists of two closely related species in section Banksia, both endemic to Western Australia. These are B. grandis and B. solandri ....
- Series BanksiaBanksia ser. BanksiaBanksia ser. Banksia is avalid botanic name for a series of Banksia. As an autonym, it necessarily contains the type species of Banksia, B. serrata . Within this constraint, however, there have been various circumscriptions.-According to Bentham:Banksia ser. Banksia originated in 1870 as...
- Series CrocinaeBanksia ser. CrocinaeBanksia ser. Crocinae is a taxonomic series in the genus Banksia. It consists of four closely related species, all of which are endemic to Western Australia; namely B. prionotes , B. burdettii , B. hookeriana and B. victoriae...
- Series ProstrataeBanksia ser. ProstrataeBanksia ser. Prostratae is a taxonomic series in the genus Banksia. It consists of six closely related species in section Banksia, all endemic to Western Australia, with a prostrate habit.Banksia ser...
- Series CyrtostylisBanksia ser. CyrtostylisBanksia ser. Cyrtostylis is a valid botanic name for a taxonomic series within the plant genus Banksia. First published at sectional rank by George Bentham in 1870, it was demoted to a series by Alex George in 1981. The name has had three circumscriptions.-According to Bentham:Bentham published B....
- Series TetragonaeBanksia ser. TetragonaeBanksia ser. Tetragonae is a taxonomic series in the genus Banksia. It consists of three closely related species of erect shrub with pendulous inflorescences in section Banksia. These are B. lemanniana , B. caleyi and B. aculeata ....
- Series Bauerinae
- Series QuercinaeBanksia ser. QuercinaeBanksia ser. Quercinae is avalid botanic name for a series of Banksia. First published by Carl Meissner in 1856, the name has had three circumscriptions.-According to Meissner:...
- Series SalicinaeBanksia ser. SalicinaeBanksia ser. Salicinae is a valid botanic name for a series of Banksia. First published by Carl Meissner in 1856, the name has had three circumscriptions.-According to Meissner:...
- B. dentataBanksia dentataThe Tropical Banksia is a species of small tree in the plant genus Banksia.-Distribution and habitat:It occurs throughout northern Australia, and also extends into New Guinea and the Aru Islands...
– B. aquiloniaBanksia aquiloniaBanksia aquilonia is a species of tall shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia.-Description:B. aquilonia grows as a tall shrub or small tree up to 8 metres high. It has hard, fissured, grey bark, and elliptic leaves without serrated margins...
– B. integrifolia – B. plagiocarpaBanksia plagiocarpaBanksia plagiocarpa, commonly known as the Dallachy's banksia or blue banksia, is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs only on Hinchinbrook Island, Queensland and the immediately adjacent mainland....
– B. oblongifoliaBanksia oblongifoliaThe Fern-leaved Banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs along the eastern coast of Australia from Wollongong, New South Wales in the south to Rockhampton, Queensland in the north...
– B. roburBanksia roburBanksia robur, commonly known as Swamp Banksia or, less commonly, Broad-leaved Banksia grows in sand or peaty sand in coastal areas from Cooktown in north Queensland to the Illawarra region on the New South Wales south coast...
– B. confertaBanksia confertaThe Glasshouse Banksia is a species of montane shrub or small tree in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs as distinct subspecies in two widely separated locations: B. conferta subsp. conferta in southern Queensland on the Lamington Plateau and further north in the Glass House Mountains; and...
– B. paludosaBanksia paludosaBanksia paludosa, commonly known as the marsh or swamp banksia, is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It is endemic to New South Wales, where it is found between Sydney and Batemans Bay, with an isolate population further south around Eden...
– B. marginataBanksia marginataBanksia marginata, commonly known as the Silver Banksia, is a species of tree or woody shrub in the plant genus Banksia found throughout much of southeastern Australia. It ranges from the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia, to north of Armidale, New South Wales, and across Tasmania and the islands...
– B. caneiBanksia caneiThe mountain banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs in subalpine areas of the Great Dividing Range between Melbourne and Canberra in southeastern Australia...
– B. saxicolaBanksia saxicolaBanksia saxicola, commonly known as the Grampians Banksia is a species of tree or shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs in Victoria in two distinct populations, one in The Grampians and the other on Wilsons Promontory....
- B. dentata
- Series Grandes
- Subgenus Isostylis
Subspecies
Genetics
Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
: George writes that it "gives the impression that it is actively speciating to fill the many ecological niches through its range". Three subspecies are currently recognised: B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia
Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia
Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia is a subspecies of Banksia integrifolia.-Description:B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia can be distinguished from the other subspecies of B. integrifolia by its slightly smaller, broader leaves, which are also somewhat duller than those of...
, B. integrifolia subsp. compar
Banksia integrifolia subsp. compar
Banksia integrifolia subsp. compar is a subspecies of Banksia integrifolia. It has larger, glossier leaves than other subspecies, and occurs much further north.-Description:...
, and B. integrifolia subsp. monticola
Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola
Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola, commonly known as White Mountain Banksia, is a subspecies of Banksia integrifolia. Described in 1994, it occurs in the Blue Mountains in northern New South Wales. It contains the largest recorded Banksia trees.-Description:B. integrifolia subsp. monticola...
.
Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia: The nominate subspecies occurs near the coast over most of the species' range except the far north. It varies little except in northern New South Wales
New South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
and southern Queensland
Queensland
Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean...
, where some populations appear to be intermediate with B. integrifolia subsp. compar.
Banksia integrifolia subsp. compar: This subspecies grows in coastal Queensland as far north as Proserpine
Proserpine, Queensland
-External links:* * * * *...
. For most of its range it is the only subspecies, but near its southern limit it co-occurs with B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia. The two subspecies are distinguishable by their leaves, which are larger and glossy with wavy margins on B. integrifolia subsp. compar.
Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola: Commonly known as White Mountain Banksia, it is the only subspecies with a montane
Montane
In biogeography, montane is the highland area located below the subalpine zone. Montane regions generally have cooler temperatures and often have higher rainfall than the adjacent lowland regions, and are frequently home to distinct communities of plants and animals.The term "montane" means "of the...
distribution; it occurs in the Blue Mountains of northern New South Wales. It is similar in form to B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia, but differs in having longer, narrower leaves, and follicles that are more deeply embedded in the old flower spike.
Hybrids
Presumed natural hybrids have been reported between B. integrifolia and other members of Banksia ser. SalicinaeBanksia ser. Salicinae
Banksia ser. Salicinae is a valid botanic name for a series of Banksia. First published by Carl Meissner in 1856, the name has had three circumscriptions.-According to Meissner:...
, although no hybrid name
Hybrid name
In botanical nomenclature, a hybrid may be given a hybrid name, which is a special kind of botanical name. The ICBN provides the following options in dealing with a hybrid:...
s have been formally published to date. Presumed hybrids are identified by their intermediate features; for example those with B. paludosa
Banksia paludosa
Banksia paludosa, commonly known as the marsh or swamp banksia, is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It is endemic to New South Wales, where it is found between Sydney and Batemans Bay, with an isolate population further south around Eden...
(Swamp Banksia), known from Jervis Bay
Jervis Bay Territory
The Jervis Bay Territory is a territory of the Commonwealth of Australia. It was surrendered by the state of New South Wales to the Commonwealth Government in 1915 so that the Federal capital at Canberra would have "access to the sea"....
and Green Cape
Green Cape
Green Cape is a headland or cape on the far south coast of New South Wales. It is located at 37° 15' S 150° 03' E, within Ben Boyd National Park, south of Eden, New South Wales...
on the coast of southern New South Wales, have a smaller habit, longer, thinner flower spikes, and persistent old flowers on old "cones", which are otherwise bare on pure B. integrifolia.
Presumed hybrids with B. marginata
Banksia marginata
Banksia marginata, commonly known as the Silver Banksia, is a species of tree or woody shrub in the plant genus Banksia found throughout much of southeastern Australia. It ranges from the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia, to north of Armidale, New South Wales, and across Tasmania and the islands...
(Silver Banksia) occur on Wilsons Promontory
Wilsons Promontory
Wilsons Promontory is a peninsula that forms the southernmost part of the Australian mainland and is located at . South Point at is the southernmost tip of Wilsons Promontory and hence of mainland Australia...
in Victoria; these are found in localities where both species co-occur, and have features intermediate between the two. Another purported hybrid with B. marginata, thought to be from Cape Paterson
Cape Paterson, Victoria
Cape Paterson is a cape and town in Gippsland, Victoria . The cape was named by Lieut. James Grant in 1801, honouring explorer Lieut. Col. William Paterson.At the 2006 census, Cape Paterson had a population of 674....
on Victoria's south coast, was first described by Alf Salkin and is commercially available in small quantities. It forms an attractive hardy low-growing plant to 1 metre.
Distribution and habitat
Geography of Australia
The geography of Australia encompasses a wide variety of biogeographic regions being the world's smallest continent but the sixth-largest country in the world. The population of Australia is concentrated along the eastern and southeastern coasts...
and ecological
Ecology
Ecology is the scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment. Variables of interest to ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount , number, and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems...
terms. According to Alex George, "it spans a wider geographical and climatic
Climate of Australia
The climate of Australia varies widely, but by far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid – 40% of the landmass is covered by sand dunes. Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil...
range than any other species." Thiele and Ladiges make a similar claim: that its distribution "is a broader latitudinal, altitudinal and ecological amplitude than any other species, with the possible exception of B. spinulosa
Banksia spinulosa
The Hairpin Banksia is a species of woody shrub, of the genus Banksia in the Proteaceae family, native to eastern Australia. Widely distributed, it is found as an understorey plant in open dry forest or heathland from Victoria to northern Queensland, generally on sandstone though sometimes also...
."
It occurs along almost the entire eastern coast of Australia, from Geelong
Geelong, Victoria
Geelong is a port city located on Corio Bay and the Barwon River, in the state of Victoria, Australia, south-west of the state capital; Melbourne. It is the second most populated city in Victoria and the fifth most populated non-capital city in Australia...
, Victoria
Victoria (Australia)
Victoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically the smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania on Boundary Islet to the north, west and south respectively....
to Proserpine
Proserpine, Queensland
-External links:* * * * *...
, Queensland
Queensland
Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean...
. There was an isolated population on Long Island
Long Island (Tasmania)
Long Island is a granite and dolerite island, with an area of 313 ha, in south-eastern Australia. It is part of Tasmania’s Long Island Group, lying in eastern Bass Strait north-west of Cape Barren Island in the Furneaux Group...
, Tasmania
Tasmania
Tasmania is an Australian island and state. It is south of the continent, separated by Bass Strait. The state includes the island of Tasmania—the 26th largest island in the world—and the surrounding islands. The state has a population of 507,626 , of whom almost half reside in the greater Hobart...
in 1999, and an 1876 record allegedly from King Island, although there has been speculation that that specimen was actually collected in the Furneaux Group. The species no longer occurs at any of these Tasmania locations, and has been declared extinct in Tasmania under that state's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995
Threatened Species Protection Act 1995
The Threatened Species Protection Act 1995, is an act of the Parliament of Tasmania that provides the statute relating to conservation of flora and fauna. Its long title is An Act to provide for the protection and management of threatened native flora and fauna and to enable and promote the...
. The range of latitude is thus about 20 to 38°S.
Sandstone
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains.Most sandstone is composed of quartz and/or feldspar because these are the most common minerals in the Earth's crust. Like sand, sandstone may be any colour, but the most common colours are tan, brown, yellow,...
. It grows near coastal cliffs and headlands, alongside river estuaries
Estuary
An estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea....
, and even on stabilised sand dunes. The temperature range for this area is around 0–30 °C (30–85 °F), with almost no frost
Frost
Frost is the solid deposition of water vapor from saturated air. It is formed when solid surfaces are cooled to below the dew point of the adjacent air as well as below the freezing point of water. Frost crystals' size differ depending on time and water vapour available. Frost is also usually...
s. The species can occur in pure stands, but is usually associated with other species such as Melaleuca quinquenervia
Melaleuca quinquenervia
Melaleuca quinquenervia, commonly known as Niaouli or Broad-leaved paperbark or the Paper Bark Tea Tree, is a small- to medium-sized tree of the allspice family, Myrtaceae. The plant is native to New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea and coastal Eastern Australia, from Botany Bay in New South Wales...
(Broad-leaved Paperbark).
Between Sydney
Sydney
Sydney is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people...
and Brisbane
Brisbane
Brisbane is the capital and most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbane's metropolitan area has a population of over 2 million, and the South East Queensland urban conurbation, centred around Brisbane, encompasses a population of...
, B. integrifolia is found up to 200 kilometres (125 mi) inland, with B. integrifolia subsp. monticola occurring in the Blue Mountains at altitudes up to 1500 metres (5000 ft). There it grows on better quality volcanic or rocky soils derived from granite
Granite
Granite is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock. Granite usually has a medium- to coarse-grained texture. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in which case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a porphyritic...
s and basalt
Basalt
Basalt is a common extrusive volcanic rock. It is usually grey to black and fine-grained due to rapid cooling of lava at the surface of a planet. It may be porphyritic containing larger crystals in a fine matrix, or vesicular, or frothy scoria. Unweathered basalt is black or grey...
s, and would experience up to 100 frosts per year. In this montane habitat, it occurs in association with Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus is a diverse genus of flowering trees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Members of the genus dominate the tree flora of Australia...
species such as E. viminalis (Manna Gum) and E. pauciflora
Eucalyptus pauciflora
The Snow Gum is a small tree or large shrub native to eastern Australia.-Habitat:It is usually found in the subalpine habitats of eastern Australia. Snow Gums also grow in lowland habitats where they can reach heights of up to 20 metres. Lowland Snow Gum is sometimes known as White Sallee, Cabbage...
(Snow Gum), and also rainforest
Rainforest
Rainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall, with definitions based on a minimum normal annual rainfall of 1750-2000 mm...
species such as Nothofagus moorei
Nothofagus moorei
Nothofagus moorei, is an important Gondwana relict of the rainforests of the southern hemisphere. It occurs in wet, fire free areas at high altitude in eastern Australia....
(Antarctic Beech) and Orites excelsa
Orites excelsa
Orites excelsus is a rainforest tree of northern New South Wales and southeast Queensland. Known colloquially as the Prickly Ash, Mountain Silky Oak or White Beefwood, it is a member of the genus Orites within the family Proteaceae....
(Prickly Ash).
Interestingly, no other species of tree occurs closer to the coast at Cape Byron
Cape Byron
Cape Byron is the easternmost point of the mainland of Australia. It is located about northeast of the town of Byron Bay and projects into the Pacific Ocean...
, making B. integrifolia the most easterly tree on the Australian mainland.
Ecology
Proteaceae
Proteaceae is a family of flowering plants distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The family comprises about 80 genera with about 1600 species. Together with the Platanaceae and Nelumbonaceae they make up the order Proteales. Well known genera include Protea, Banksia, Embothrium, Grevillea,...
, B. integrifolia has proteoid root
Proteoid root
Proteoid roots, also known as cluster roots, are plant roots that form clusters of closely spaced short lateral rootlets. They may form a two to five centimetre thick mat just beneath the leaf litter. They enhance nutrient uptake, possibly by chemically modifying the soil environment to improve...
s, roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These enhance solubilisation
Solubility
Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid, or gaseous solvent to form a homogeneous solution of the solute in the solvent. The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the used solvent as well as on...
of nutrients, thus allowing nutrient uptake in low-nutrient soils such as the phosphorus
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15. A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus as a mineral is almost always present in its maximally oxidized state, as inorganic phosphate rocks...
-deficient native soils of Australia. Studies on B. integrifolia suggest that its proteoid root mat achieves this by chemically modifying its soil environment.
Nectarivore
In zoology, nectarivore is an animal which eats the sugar-rich nectar produced by flowering plants. Most nectarivores are insects or birds, but there are also nectarivorous mammals, notably several species of bats in the Southwestern United States and Mexico, as well as the Australian Honey Possum...
animals. Surveys have observed a range of animals feeding on the species, including a wide range of insect
Insect
Insects are a class of living creatures within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae...
s; many species of bird including Phylidonyris novaehollandiae (New Holland Honeyeater), Anthochaera carunculata (Red Wattlebird), Anthochaera chrysoptera (Little Wattlebird), Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris (Eastern Spinebill) and Trichoglossus haematodus (Rainbow Lorikeet); and mammals such as Petaurus norfolcensis (Squirrel Glider), Petaurus breviceps (Sugar Glider), Acrobates pygmaeus (Feathertail Glider) and Pteropus poliocephalus (Grey-headed Flying Fox). In some areas such as at Bungawalbin National Park
Bungawalbin National Park
Bungawalbin is a national park in New South Wales, Australia, 563 km north of Sydney. Originally known as Bungawalbin Nature Reserve, it was granted National Park status in 1999....
in northern New South Wales, B. integrifolia is the only source of nectar and pollen in the autumn (March-April) and late winter (July). The importance of non-flying mammals to pollination of B. integrifolia was demonstrated in 1989, with a study in Wilsons Promontory National Park
Wilsons Promontory National Park
Wilsons Promontory National Park, commonly known as Wilsons Prom or The Prom, is a national park in the Gippsland region of Victoria , 157 km southeast of Melbourne....
showing a reduction of fruit set when measures were taken to exclude them.
Unlike most Banksia species, B. integrifolia does not require bushfire to trigger the release of its seed. Rather, seed is released spontaneously on reaching maturity in late summer. The species' non-reliance on fire for seed dispersal suggests that the exclusion of fire would not affect plant populations, but a number of studies have found the opposite to be true: in areas where fire has been excluded for many years, populations have declined substantially. An investigation into the defoliation and premature death of trees on the Yanakie Isthmus
Yanakie Isthmus
Yanakie Isthmus is a sandy isthmus that connects Wilsons Promontory to mainland Victoria, south-eastern Australia. The small holiday town of Sandy Point and nearby Shallow Inlet lie on the western side of the isthmus.-References:...
in south Victoria reached the tentative conclusion that the absence of fire had created unhealthy surface soil conditions. On the Mornington Peninsula
Mornington Peninsula
The Mornington Peninsula is a peninsula located south-east of Melbourne in Victoria, Australia. It is surrounded by Port Phillip to the west, Western Port to the east and Bass Strait to the south, and is connected to the mainland in the north. Geographically, the peninsula begins its protrusion...
, surveys of an area that had not been burnt since the 1890s found that B. integrifolia densities fell by 77% between 1977 and 2000. A subsequent study found the decline to have been caused by extremely high seedling mortality rates, due to grazing by herbivore
Herbivore
Herbivores are organisms that are anatomically and physiologically adapted to eat plant-based foods. Herbivory is a form of consumption in which an organism principally eats autotrophs such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing bacteria. More generally, organisms that feed on autotrophs in...
s and intense competition for soil moisture during summer. Despite acknowledging that "the role of fire in these systems remains unclear", it concluded that "developing fire and/or grazing management regimes will be necessary to conserve the structural integrity of these coastal ecosystems."
These concerns aside, B. integrifolia does not appear to be under threat. It has excellent resistance to Phytophthora cinnamomi
Phytophthora cinnamomi
Phytophthora cinnamomi is a soil-borne water mould that produces an infection which causes a condition in plants called root rot or dieback. The plant pathogen is one of the world's most invasive species and is present in over 70 countries from around the world.- Life cycle and effects on plants :P...
dieback, which poses a major threat to many other Banksia species; and its wide distribution protects against the threat of habitat loss due to land clearing. As a result, it does not appear on the list of threatened Australian plants under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is an Act of the Parliament of Australia that provides a framework for protection of the Australian environment, including its biodiversity and its natural and culturally significant places...
.
Cultivation
Clay
Clay is a general term including many combinations of one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are mostly composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure.- Formation :Clay minerals...
, sand
Sand
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles.The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal...
, acid
Acid
An acid is a substance which reacts with a base. Commonly, acids can be identified as tasting sour, reacting with metals such as calcium, and bases like sodium carbonate. Aqueous acids have a pH of less than 7, where an acid of lower pH is typically stronger, and turn blue litmus paper red...
and even alkali
Alkali
In chemistry, an alkali is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal element. Some authors also define an alkali as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of a soluble base has a pH greater than 7. The adjective alkaline is commonly used in English as a synonym for base,...
ne soils, and it shows good resistance to wind and salt
Salt
In chemistry, salts are ionic compounds that result from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. They are composed of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral...
, making it suitable for seaside planting. It is therefore highly regarded as a low-maintenance garden tree, although its large size makes it unsuitable for smaller gardens. Its hardiness may however forewarn weed potential, as some evidence of weediness has been seen in Western Australia
Western Australia
Western Australia is a state of Australia, occupying the entire western third of the Australian continent. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Great Australian Bight and Indian Ocean to the south, the Northern Territory to the north-east and South Australia to the south-east...
and New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
. When growing near bushland within its native habitat, it is recommended to obtain local provenance seed or plants if available.
The most common form available in commercial nurseries is unimproved Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia. It prefers a sunny aspect without exposure to frosts, and tolerates fairly heavy pruning
Pruning
Pruning is a horticultural practice involving the selective removal of parts of a plant, such as branches, buds, or roots. Reasons to prune plants include deadwood removal, shaping , improving or maintaining health, reducing risk from falling branches, preparing nursery specimens for...
. Seeds do not require any treatment, and take 5 to 6 weeks to germinate. Flowering begins at around four to six years from seed. The other subspecies are less well known in cultivation, but are obtainable. Cultivation is presumably similar to B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia, except that B. integrifolia subsp. monticola may be assumed frost-tolerant. Dwarf
Dwarfing
Dwarfing is a characteristic in plants and animals whereby one or more members of a breed or cultivar are significantly smaller than standard members of their species...
forms of B. integrifolia are sometimes sold, and a registered prostrate cultivar
Cultivar
A cultivar'Cultivar has two meanings as explained under Formal definition. When used in reference to a taxon, the word does not apply to an individual plant but to all those plants sharing the unique characteristics that define the cultivar. is a plant or group of plants selected for desirable...
, Banksia 'Roller Coaster'
Banksia 'Roller Coaster'
Banksia 'Roller Coaster, sometimes referred to as Banksia 'Austraflora Roller Coaster, is a registered Banksia cultivar bred from Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia. Its extended cultivar name is Banksia integrifolia 'Roller Coaster...
, is available. The latter is a vigorous ground-hugging plant that can spread to 4 or 5 metres across yet remains only 50 centimetres high.
Because of its high resistance to P. cinnamomi dieback, the feasibility of using B. integrifolia as a rootstock for susceptible Banksia species in the cut flower trade
Floriculture
Floriculture, or flower farming, is a discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry...
is under investigation. Presently, the success rate for grafting is only 30–40%, and even with successful grafts there is a tendency for the union to fail under stress. More research is needed before the technique will be ready for commercial use.
Other uses
Wood
Wood is a hard, fibrous tissue found in many trees. It has been used for hundreds of thousands of years for both fuel and as a construction material. It is an organic material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression...
of B. integrifolia is pink to red, with inconspicuous rings and conspicuous rays. It is spongy and porous, with a density of around 530 kilograms per cubic metre (33 lb/ft³). It is considered highly decorative, but it warps badly on drying, has poor load-bearing qualities, and is susceptible to termite
Termite
Termites are a group of eusocial insects that, until recently, were classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera , but are now accepted as the epifamily Termitoidae, of the cockroach order Blattodea...
attack; it is therefore unsuitable for most construction purposes. It is sometimes used for cabinet panelling and in ornamental turnery
Woodturning
Woodturning is a form of woodworking that is used to create wooden objects on a lathe . Woodturning differs from most other forms of woodworking in that the wood is moving while a stationary tool is used to cut and shape it...
, and natural bends were once sought after for making boat knees
Knee (construction)
In woodworking, a knee is a curved piece of load-bearing wood that is often used to connect adjacent members at approximately right angles to one another...
. It is a useful firewood
Wood fuel
Wood fuel is wood used as fuel. The burning of wood is currently the largest use of energy derived from a solid fuel biomass. Wood fuel can be used for cooking and heating, and occasionally for fueling steam engines and steam turbines that generate electricity. Wood fuel may be available as...
.
B. integrifolia produces a dark amber-coloured honey of middling quality and therefore low commercial value. Despite this, the species is highly valued by beekeepers
Beekeeping
Beekeeping is the maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, by humans. A beekeeper keeps bees in order to collect honey and other products of the hive , to pollinate crops, or to produce bees for sale to other beekeepers...
because it produces large amounts of pollen and nectar during autumn and winter, thus helping support hives
Beehive (beekeeping)
A beehive is an enclosed structure in which some honey bee species of the subgenus Apis live and raise their young. Natural beehives are naturally occurring structures occupied by honeybee colonies, while domesticated honeybees live in man-made beehives, often in an apiary. These man-made...
at a time when little else is flowering.
Historically, indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. The Aboriginal Indigenous Australians migrated from the Indian continent around 75,000 to 100,000 years ago....
obtained nectar from B. integrifolia by stroking the flower spikes then licking their hands, or by steeping flower spikes in a coolamon
Coolamon (vessel)
A coolamon is an Indigenous Australian carrying vessel.It is a multi-purpose shallow vessel, or dish with curved sides, ranging in length from 30–70 cm, and similar in shape to a canoe....
overnight. They also used the flower spikes as hairbrush
Hairbrush
A hairbrush is a stick brush with rigid or soft bristles used in hair care for smoothing, styling, and detangling human hair, or for grooming an animal's fur.-Human use:...
es. Early settlers used the nectar as a syrup for sore throats and colds; and bushmen would impregnate barren "cones" with fat to make a slow-burning candle
Candle
A candle is a solid block or cylinder of wax with an embedded wick, which is lit to provide light, and sometimes heat.Today, most candles are made from paraffin. Candles can also be made from beeswax, soy, other plant waxes, and tallow...
.
More recently, B. integrifolia has been used in the art of bonsai
Bonsai
is a Japanese art form using miniature trees grown in containers. Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Chinese tradition of penjing from which the art originated, and the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ...
. Its rangy habit and long internodes are challenging to overcome, but the leaves do reduce with pruning, and unlike the gnarlier B. serrata
Banksia serrata
Banksia serrata, commonly known as Old Man Banksia, Saw Banksia, Saw-tooth Banksia and Red Honeysuckle, is a species of woody shrub or tree of the genus Banksia in the Proteaceae family. Native the east coast of Australia, it is found from Queensland through to Victoria with outlying populations on...
(Saw Banksia) its trunk can become textured with age.
It is used as a floral emblem
Floral emblem
In a number of countries, plants have been chosen as symbols to represent specific geographic areas. Some countries have a country-wide floral emblem; others in addition have symbols representing subdivisions. Different processes have been used to adopt these symbols - some are conferred by...
by two Local Government Areas of Queensland
Local Government Areas of Queensland
This is a list of local government areas in Queensland, sorted by region. For the history and responsibilities of local government in that state, see Local government in Queensland.-LGAs sorted by region:...
: the City of Redcliffe
Redcliffe, Queensland
Redcliffe is a residential suburb of the Moreton Bay Region in the north-east of the Redcliffe peninsula, approximately north-northeast of Brisbane, the state capital of Queensland, Australia...
and the City of Logan
Logan City, Queensland
Logan City is a Local Government Area in South East Queensland, Australia. The city is situated between the City of Brisbane to the north and Gold Coast to the south. The city also borders the Scenic Rim, the City of Ipswich and Redland City....
. In 2000 it was featured on an Australian postage stamp
Postage stamps and postal history of Australia
This is an overview of the postage stamps and postal history of Australia.- Postal history :The six self-governing Australian colonies that formed the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901 operated their own postal service and issued their own stamps – see articles on the systems on New South...
.