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Battle of Actium

 
Battle of Actium

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Battle of Actium



 
 
The Battle of Actium was the final engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic
Final war of the Roman Republic

The final war of the Roman Republic, also known as Antony's civil war or the war between Antony and Octavian, was last of the Roman civil wars of the Roman republic, fought between Cleopatra and Augustus....
. It was fought between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony
Mark Antony

Marcus Antonius , known in English as Marc Antony, was a Roman Republic politician and General. He was an important supporter and the best friend of Julius Caesar as a military commander and administrator, being Caesar's second cousin, once removed, by his mother Julia Antonia....
 and Cleopatra. The battle took place on September 2, 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea
Ionian Sea

The Ionian Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic Sea. It is bounded by southern Italy, including Calabria, Sicily and the Salento peninsula, to the west, by southwestern Albania, including Saranda and Himara, and a large number of Greek islands, including Corfu, Zante, Kephalonia, Ithaka, and Lefkas to the east....
, near the Roman colony of Actium
Actium

Actium was the ancient name of a promontory of western Greece in northwestern Acarnania, at the mouth of the Sinus Ambracius opposite Nicopolis, built by Caesar Augustus on the north side of the strait....
 in Greece
Greece

Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , is a country in southeastern Europe, situated on the southern end of the Balkans. It has borders with Albania, Bulgaria and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia to the north, and Turkey to the east....
. Octavian's fleet was commanded by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was a Roman statesman and general. He was a close friend, son-in-law, lieutenant and minister to Octavian, the future emperor Caesar Augustus....
, while Antony's fleet was supported by the ships of his lover, Cleopatra VII, queen of Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemaic Egypt

Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and the Aegyptus in 30 BC....
.

Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its domains.






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The Battle of Actium was the final engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic
Final war of the Roman Republic

The final war of the Roman Republic, also known as Antony's civil war or the war between Antony and Octavian, was last of the Roman civil wars of the Roman republic, fought between Cleopatra and Augustus....
. It was fought between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony
Mark Antony

Marcus Antonius , known in English as Marc Antony, was a Roman Republic politician and General. He was an important supporter and the best friend of Julius Caesar as a military commander and administrator, being Caesar's second cousin, once removed, by his mother Julia Antonia....
 and Cleopatra. The battle took place on September 2, 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea
Ionian Sea

The Ionian Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic Sea. It is bounded by southern Italy, including Calabria, Sicily and the Salento peninsula, to the west, by southwestern Albania, including Saranda and Himara, and a large number of Greek islands, including Corfu, Zante, Kephalonia, Ithaka, and Lefkas to the east....
, near the Roman colony of Actium
Actium

Actium was the ancient name of a promontory of western Greece in northwestern Acarnania, at the mouth of the Sinus Ambracius opposite Nicopolis, built by Caesar Augustus on the north side of the strait....
 in Greece
Greece

Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , is a country in southeastern Europe, situated on the southern end of the Balkans. It has borders with Albania, Bulgaria and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia to the north, and Turkey to the east....
. Octavian's fleet was commanded by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was a Roman statesman and general. He was a close friend, son-in-law, lieutenant and minister to Octavian, the future emperor Caesar Augustus....
, while Antony's fleet was supported by the ships of his lover, Cleopatra VII, queen of Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemaic Egypt

Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and the Aegyptus in 30 BC....
.

Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its domains. As a result he adopted the title of Princeps
Princeps

The Latin word Princeps means exactly 'a prime'. This article is devoted to a number of specific historical meanings the word took, by far the most important of which follows first....
 ("first citizen") and he was given the title of Augustus by the Senate. As Caesar Augustus he would retain the trappings of a restored Republican leader, however, historians generally view this consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifics, as the end of the Roman Republic
Roman Republic

The Roman Republic was the phase of the Ancient Rome characterized by a republican form of government; a period which began with the overthrow of the Roman Roman Kingdom, c....
 and the beginning of the Roman Empire
Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was the Roman Republic phase of the Ancient Rome, characterised by an autocracy form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
.

Prelude

The alliance commonly known as the Second Triumvirate
Second Triumvirate

The Second Triumvirate is the name historians give to the official political alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus , Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , and Mark Antony, formed on 26 November 43 BC with the enactment of the Lex Titia, the adoption of which marked the end of the Roman Republic....
 ended when Octavian came to perceive Caesarion
Caesarion

Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion Greek language: ?t??e?a??? ??' F???p?t?? F?????t?? ?a?sa?, ?a?sa????, Ptolemaios Philop?tor Philom?tor Kaisar, Kaisar?on was the last king of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, who reigned, as a child, jointly with his mother Cleopatra VII of Egypt from S...
, the natural son of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra and Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar

'Gaius Julius Caesar' , July 13, 100 BC ? March 15, 44 BC,) was a Roman Republic military and political leader. He played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
, as a threat. Octavian's authority and the loyalty of the legions that supported him, was principally founded on Caesar's 44 BC bequest, which established Octavian as the unique, legitimate heir of the great Roman general. This was threatened when Antony, Octavian's principal partner in the Triumvirate, divorced Octavian's sister Octavia Minor
Octavia Minor

Octavia Minor , also known as Octavia the Younger or simply Octavia, was the sister of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus , half sister of Octavia Major, and fourth wife of Mark Antony....
 and moved to Egypt to become Cleopatra's partner. Subsequently, Antony tried to have Caesarion accepted as the true heir of Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar

'Gaius Julius Caesar' , July 13, 100 BC ? March 15, 44 BC,) was a Roman Republic military and political leader. He played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
.

Caesarion, then thirteen years of age, was formally elevated to power by Antony and Cleopatra in 34 BC, and given the vague title of "King of the Kings". Octavian reacted by starting a propaganda war, denouncing Antony as an enemy of Rome. Octavian claimed that Antony sought to establish a personal monarchy over the entire Roman Empire in the name of Caesarion, completely circumventing the Roman Senate. As the "Second Triumvirate" agreement formally expired on the last day of 33 BC, the Roman Senate
Roman Senate

The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. According to the Greek historian Polybius, our principal source on the Constitution of the Roman Republic, the Roman Senate was the predominant branch of government....
 issued a declaration of war against Cleopatra and deprived Antony of any legal authority. During 32 BC, a third of the Senate and both consuls allied with Antony. Military operations commenced in 31 BC, when Octavian's general Agrippa captured Methone, a Greek town allied to Antony.

Order of battle


The two fleets met outside the Gulf of Actium, on the morning of September 2, 31 BC, when Mark Antony lead 230 warships through the straits toward the open sea. Octavian's fleet was waiting beyond the straits, led by the experienced admiral Agrippa, commanding from the left wing of the fleet, Lucius Arruntius
Lucius Arruntius

Lucius Arruntius was a Ancient Rome Admiral. He saw action during the War with Sextus Pompeius, and the war of Mark Antony and Augustus. He is most notable for his participation during the Battle of Actium, where he was in command of victorious Augustus' central division....
 commanding the centre and Marcus Lurius
Marcus Lurius

Marcus Lurius was a 1st Century BC Roman admiral. Lurius is best known for holding an important command in the Battle of Actium.Around 40 BC Marcus Lurius, as governor of Sardinia, fought off an invasion of the island led by Menas , an admiral serving under Sextus Pompey who ruled Sicily at the time....
 commanding from the right. Octavian's armies observed the battle from shore to the north of the straits, and were under the command of Statilius Taurus
Titus Statilius Taurus

Titus Statilius Taurus was a Roman general and politician. He was a consul suffectus in 37 BC. In the war against Sextus Pompey he fought in Sicily and commanded a fleet sent by Marc Antony to Augustus's aid....
.

Mark Antony and Gellius Publicola
Lucius Gellius Publicola (consul 36 BCE)

Lucius Gellius Publicola was a consul of the Roman Republic. He was the son of Lucius Gellius Publicola, the consul of 72 BCE.He was accused of committing incest with his step-mother, and of conspiring against his father's life ; but although the latter was nearly convinced of his guilt, he allowed him to plead his cause before a large num...
 commanded the right wing of the Antonian fleet, while Marcus Octavius and Marcus Insteius commanded the centre, with Cleopatra's squadron positioned behind them. Gaius Sosius
Gaius Sosius

Gaius Sosius, was a Roman general and politician.Gaius Sosius was elected quaestor in 66 BC and praetor in 49 BC. Upon the start of the Caesar's civil war he joined the optimates....
 launched the initial attack of the battle from the left wing of the fleet, while Antony's chief lieutenant Publius Canidius
Publius Canidius Crassus

Publius Canidius Crassus was a Ancient Rome general and Mark Antony' lieutenant. He served under Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in southern Gallia in 43 BC, and was henceforth allied with Antonius....
 was in charge of the triumvir's land forces.

The battle

The majority of Mark Antony's warships were quinquereme
Quinquereme

A quinquereme or penteres is a type of ancient oar-propelled warship that was used by the Greeks of the Hellenistic period and later by the Carthaginians and Ancient Rome, from the 4th century BC to the 1st century....
s, huge galleys with massive rams, that could weigh up to three hundred tons. The bows of the galleys were armored with bronze
Bronze

Bronze is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive, but sometimes with other chemical element such as phosphorus, manganese, aluminium, or silicon....
 plates and square-cut timbers, making a successful ramming attack with similar equipment difficult. Unfortunately for Antony, many of his ships were undermanned; a severe malaria outbreak had taken place when they were waiting for Octavian's fleet to arrive and he had burned the ships he could no longer man, while clustering the remainder tightly together. With many oarsmen dead, the powerful, head-on ramming tactic for which the quinquereme
Quinquereme

A quinquereme or penteres is a type of ancient oar-propelled warship that was used by the Greeks of the Hellenistic period and later by the Carthaginians and Ancient Rome, from the 4th century BC to the 1st century....
s had been designed was rendered impossible. The morale of his troops had also suffered after supply lines had been cut.

Octavian's fleet was largely made up of smaller, fully-manned Liburnian
Liburnians

The Liburnians were an ancient people inhabiting the district called Liburnia, a coastal region of the northeastern Adriatic between the river Arsia in Istria and the river Titius in what is now Croatia....
 vessels, armed with better-trained, fresher crews. His ships were lighter and could out-maneuver the quinqueremes, where one objective was to ram the enemy ship and at the same time kill the above deck crew with a shower of arrows and catapult-launched stones, which were large enough to decapitate a man. Prior to the battle, one of Mark Antony's generals, known as Quintus Dellius
Quintus Dellius

Quintus Dellius was a Roman commander and politician in the second half of the first century BC.He was an political opportunist and was called desultor bellorum civilium by Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, because he deserted in 43 BC from Publius Cornelius Dolabella to Gaius Cassius Longinus, then in 42 BC from Cassius to Mark Anton...
, had defected to Octavian, bringing with him Mark Antony’s battle plans. Antony had hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's wing on the north
North

North is one of the four cardinal directions, specifically the direction that, in Western culture, is treated as the fundamental direction:...
 end of his line, but Octavian's entire fleet
Naval fleet

A fleet, or naval fleet, is a large formation of warships, and the largest formation in any navy. A fleet at sea is the direct equivalent of an army on land....
, aware of this strategy, stayed out of range. Shortly after mid-day, Antony was forced to extend his line from the protection of the shore, and finally engage the enemy.

Seeing that the battle was going against Antony, Cleopatra's fleet retreated to open sea without engaging. Mark Antony relocated to a smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape, taking a few ships with him as an escort to help break through Octavian's lines. Those that remained left behind, however, were all captured or sunk by Octavian's forces.

Another theory suggests that Antony knew he was surrounded and had nowhere to run. Antony gathered his ships around him in a quasi-horseshoe formation, staying close to the shore for safety. If Octavian's ships tried to approach Antony's, the sea would push them into the shore. Antony may have known that he would not be able to defeat Octavian's forces, so he and Cleopatra stayed in the rear of the formation. Eventually, Antony sent the ships on the northern part of the formation to attack. He had them move out to the north, spreading out Octavian's ships which up until now were tightly arranged. He sent Gaius Sosius
Gaius Sosius

Gaius Sosius, was a Roman general and politician.Gaius Sosius was elected quaestor in 66 BC and praetor in 49 BC. Upon the start of the Caesar's civil war he joined the optimates....
 down to the south to spread the remaining ships out to the south. This left a hole in the middle of Octavian's formation. Antony seized the opportunity and with Cleopatra on her ship and him on a different ship, sped through the gap and escaped, abandoning his entire force.

Aftermath

Ballistae On Roman Ship
The political consequences of this battle were far-reaching. After Mark Antony lost his fleet, his army, which had been equal to that of Octavian, deserted in large numbers. Under cover of darkness some 19 infantry
Infantry

Infantry are soldiers who are primarily trained for the role of fighting on foot. A soldier in the infantry is known as an infantryman. Infantry units have more physically demanding training than other branches of armies, and place a greater emphasis on fitness, physical strength and aggression....
 legions and 12,000 cavalry
Cavalry

The Cavalry is the second oldest of the Combat Arms, and as soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback in combat, it represents the mobility and offensive power of the armed forces....
 fled before Antony was able to engage Octavian in a land battle. Despite a victory at Alexandria on July 31, 30 BC, more of Mark Antony's armies deserted, leaving him with insufficient forces to fight Octavian. Mark Antony then tried to flee from the battle, and as a result of a communication breakdown, came to believe that Cleopatra had been captured, and hence committed suicide
Suicide

Suicide is the intentional taking of one's own life. Many dictionaries also note the metaphorical sense of "willful destruction of one's self-interest"....
.

When Cleopatra heard the news about Mark Antony's death, rather than risk being captured by Octavian, she also committed suicide, on August 12, 30 BC. She allowed herself to be bitten by a poisonous asp
Asp (reptile)

Asp is the modern Anglicisation of the word Aspis, which in Ancient history referred to any one of several venomous snake species found in the Nile delta region....
, reportedly hidden for her in a basket of figs. Octavian had Caesarion killed later that year, finally securing his legacy as Julius Caesar's only 'son'.

Thus, Octavian's victory at the Battle of Actium gave him sole and uncontested control of the Roman Mediterranean and he became "Augustus Caesar" and the "first citizen" of Rome. This victory, consolidating his power over every Roman institution, marked the transition of Rome from Republic to Empire and the final surrender of Egypt following Cleopatra's death also marks, for many historians, the final demise of both the Hellenistic Age and the Ptolemaic Kingdom.

To commemorate his victory over Antony, Augustus established the Roman festival Actia
Actia

In Ancient Roman religious tradition, 'Actia' was a festival of Apollo, celebrated at Nicopolis in Epirus , with wrestling, musical contests, horse racing, and sea battles....
. Augustus also erected a monument overlooking the site, which incorporated the bronze rams taken from the defeated ships. The surviving sockets in the stonework are evidence of the considerable size of these rams.

Sources

  • Military Heritage
    Military Heritage

    Military Heritage is a glossy, bi-monthly military history magazine published by Sovereign Media. It was founded by Carl A. Gnam, Jr., who also serves as the editorial director....
     published a feature about the Battle of Actium, involving Mark Antony, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus aka. Octavian (Julius Caesar's 18-year old adopted son and heir), and Cleopatra of Egypt (Joseph M. Horodyski, Military Heritage, August 2005, Volume 7, No. 1, pp 58 to 63, and p. 78), ISSN 1524-8666.
  • Everitt, Anthony. Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor. New York, Random House. 2006.


External links