Tzniut
Encyclopedia
Tzniut is a term used within Judaism
and has its greatest influence as a concept within Orthodox Judaism
. It is used to describe both the character trait of modesty and humility
, as well as a group of Jewish religious laws
pertaining to conduct in general and especially between the sexes. The term is frequently used with regard to the rules of dress for women.
is a paramount ideal within Judaism. Moses
is referred to as "exceedingly humble, more than any man in the world" (Book of Numbers
12:3). Though the adjective used of Moses is anav (ענו), and not tzana (צָנַע), the cognate of the noun tzniut. The verb tzana "to be humble" occurs in Proverbs 11:2 and, (in the hiphil), "walk humbly" in Micah 6:8.
The Talmud
states that humility is one of the characteristic traits of the Jewish people (Talmud
, Tractate Yevamot 79a).
Elazar Bar Tzadok connected the injunction at Micah
6:8 to "walk humbly (hatzne'a leches) with your God" as referring to modesty and discretion in dress and in behavior (Tractate Sukkah
49b).
In the legal dimension of Orthodox
Rabbinic literature, the issue of Tzniut is discussed in more technical terms: how much skin may a person expose, and so on. Notwithstanding these details, the concept of humility and modesty as a positive character trait, a practice, and a way of life—a "way of walking"
—is also taught to be important in Rabbinic literature. This awareness informs the concept and the practice of Tzniut in its rules and details.
Orthodox Judaism
requires both men and women to substantially cover their bodies. In Haredi
communities, men generally wear long trousers and often long-sleeve shirts, and women wear blouses with sleeves below the elbow and skirts that cover the knees. Some women try not to follow fashion, while others wear fashionable but modest clothing.
In Modern Orthodox
practice for women it is generally accepted for sleeves to cover the elbows and shirts to cover the collarbone, skirts to cover the knees with or without tights, and trousers not to be worn in the presence of men. Some Modern Orthodox women will wear sleeves up to a fist's length (tefach) above their elbows or even short sleeves, and some do not cover their collarbones.
Haredi women avoid skirts with slits, preferring instead kick-pleat
s. They also avoid overly eye-catching colors, especially bright red. Some insist on closed-toe shoes and always wear stockings, the thickness of which varies by community. In some Haredi communities women wear loose vests over shirts. Men must wear shirts with sleeves. Some Modern Orthodox men will wear shorts, but Haredi men will not, and manyModesty: Not Just For Women, Patheos
will not wear short sleeves at all. Sandals without socks, while generally not worn in a synagogue, are usually accepted in Modern Orthodox and Religious Zionist Communities in Israel for daily dress. Haredi Ashkenazi practice discourages sandals without socks both in and out of the synagogue. Haredi Sefardic communities tend to accept sandals at least outside of synagogue and sometimes in synagogue as well. Dress in a synagogue and, according to many, in public should be comparable to that worn by the community when meeting royalty or government.
Conservative Judaism
formally requires modest dress , although this requirement is often not observed on a day-to-day basis, but is somewhat more observed when attending synagogue. While day-to-day dress often simply reflects the general society, many Conservative synagogues expect somewhat more modest dress (although not necessarily as stringent as in Orthodox Judaism
) for synagogue attendance, and may have specific dress requirements to receive synagogue honors (such as being called for a Torah reading
). Reform Judaism
has no religious dress requirements.
Style of dress involves cultural considerations distinct from religious requirements. There are many Conservative and Reform synagogues in which suits and ties are socially expected, while in many Orthodox synagogues (especially in Israel
) dress, while meeting religious modesty requirements, is quite casual. Many Haredi
and Hassidic communities have special customs and styles of dress which serve to identify members of their communities but regard these special dress features as customs
of their communities rather than as general religious requirements expected of all observant Jews.
Jewish law requires married women to cover their hair; According to the Talmud this is a biblical requirement, which in this context is called dat Moshe (the law of Moses). The most common hair coverings in the Haredi community are the sheitel
(wig), the snood
, and the mitpachat (Hebrew: scarf) or tichel
(Yiddish); some Haredi women cover their hair covering with an additional hat or beret. The practice of covering hair with wigs, or detached hair, is debated among halachic authorities. Many authorities, including Rabbi Moshe Feinstein
, permitted it, and the Lubavitcher Rebbe
actively encouraged it, while some authorities forbid it. Observance of this law was nearly entirely out of practice among Modern Observant women a generation ago (except in synagogue), but younger generations are increasingly taking the practice upon themselves. Among Modern Observant women who do cover their hair, the most common form of coverings include a hat or beret; younger women often wear baseball caps and bandannas when dressed casually, and some wear bright and colorful scarves tied in a number of ways . A style of half wig known as a "fall" has become increasingly common in many segments of Modern and Haredi Orthodox communities. It is usually worn with either a hat or headband.
In Yemen
unmarried girls covered their heads also, like the Muslims there; however, upon their emigration to Israel and other places, this custom has been abandoned. While Rebbe Aharon Roth, founder of Shomer Emunim
, praised this custom, no Ashkenazi community, including the most strict Haredi circles, have ever practiced such a custom.
Men, married or not, may cover their heads. The most common head covering is the kippah
(Hebrew: skull-cap), known as yarmulke in Yiddish. Most men wear something on their heads at almost all times, while some cover their heads only when performing some religious act, or when eating. Few cover the entire head. Almost all will bathe with the head uncovered, but sleeping varies by community or family practice. The exact nature of this practice, and how binding it is, is a matter of dispute among halachic authorities. Wearing a hat is not required by Jewish law, and those who wear a hat always wear a kippah underneath; however, there are some rabbis, especially in Hasidic Judaism, who require a double head covering—of kippah and hat or talleth—during prayer.
Conservative
and Reform Judaism
do not generally require women to wear head coverings. Some more traditional Conservative synagogues ask that married women cover their heads during services. However, some more liberal Conservative synagogues suggest that women, married or not, wear head-coverings similar to those worn by men
, and some require it, not for modesty, but as a feminist
gesture of egalitarianism
. Almost all Conservative synagogues require men to wear a head covering (usually a kippah), but in Reform synagogues there is often no requirement.
men are generally not allowed to hear women sing, a prohibition called kol isha. This is derived from Song of Solomon
: "Let me hear your voice, for your voice is sweet ("arev") and your face is beautiful." The Talmud classifies this as ervah (literally "nakedness"). The majority view of halachic authorities is that this prohibition applies at all times, and forbids a man to pray or study Torah in the presence of a woman who is singing, similar to other prohibitions classified as ervah. A minority view holds that the prohibition of praying or studying in the presence of kol isha applies only while reciting the Shema Yisrael
prayer.
There is debate between poskim
(authorities of Jewish law) whether the prohibition applies to a recorded voice, where the singer cannot be seen, where the woman is not known to the man who is listening and where he has never seen her or a picture of her.
There are also opinions, following Samson Raphael Hirsch
and Azriel Hildesheimer
, that exclude singing in mixed groups from this prohibition, such as synagogue prayer or dinner-table Zemirot
(religious songs), based on the idea that the female voice is not distinctly heard as separate from the group in these cases (“Trei Kali Lo Mishtamai,” two voices cannot be heard simultaneously - Megila 21b). However Yehiel Yaakov Weinberg found this explanation unsatisfactory, and instead proposed, following the Sdei Chemed quoting the Divrei Cheifetz, that the kol isha prohibition does not apply to women singing zemirot, songs to children, and lamentations for the dead, because in these contexts, men do not derive pleasure from the woman’s voice.
In a novel ruling, Rabbi David Bigman holds that kol isha only applies when there is sexual pleasure involved. According to the majority of authorities, i.e. those who did not link kol isha to Kriat Shema, kol isha is in fact similar to gazing at a woman's little finger, which is another case in Berachot ibid. But the Rishonim
rule that gazing at a woman's finger only applies when done expressly for sexual pleasure, or when there is any sexual pleasure involved. Thus, it stands to reason (no previous authority has explicitly stated as such) that kol isha is similar, and has parallel by-laws applicable to it. Therefore, Rabbi Bigman states, "There is no prohibition whatsoever of innocent singing; rather, only singing intended for sexual stimulation, or flirtatious singing, is forbidden. Although this distinction is not explicit in the early rabbinic sources, it closely fits the character of the prohibition as described in different contexts in the Talmud and the Rishonim, and it is supported by the language of the Rambam, the Tur, and the Shulchan Aruch."
In a similarly novel ruling Rabbi Avraham Shammah comes to the same conclusion as Rabbi Bigman. He argues that ideologically, the laws of tzniut are defined by time and place, according to what people are accustomed to, and what gives them sexual pleasure. He quotes the Maharam Alkashar (a 15th century rabbinic exile from Spain), who says
, who permit various violations of their theretofore normative laws of tzniut, on the basis that the behavior in question is not sexually enticing in that time and place. In regards to kol isha specifically, he notes that
On the other hand, against the novel and minority view of Rabbis Bigman and Shammah, Rabbi Cherney notes that,
interprets the relevant passage of the Talmud as expressing a Rabbi's opinion rather than imposing a requirement. Reform Judaism
does not regard this traditional law
as applicable to modern times.
, men and women who are not married and are not closely related are generally not allowed to touch each other. Many observant married couples will also not touch one another in public. A person who refrains from touching the opposite sex is said to be shomer negiah
. Shmirath negiah
applies to touching which is b' derech chiba (in an affectionate manner). According to some authorities, mainly of Modern Orthodox background, a quick handshake, particularly in the context of earning a living in a business setting, does not fall under this category. However, people who are stringently shomer negiah will avoid shaking hands with a member of the opposite sex, even in a business context. This is almost universally observed within the Haredi community and somewhat observed within the Modern Orthodox community where the term originated in recent decades.
Examples of relatives that one may touch include parents, grandparents, grandchildren, and one's spouse if she is not niddah
(menstruating). This prohibition is colloquially called shmirath negiah
(observance of the laws of touching
) or shomer negiah
. Whether or not children adopted at a young age are included in this prohibition is a matter of dispute and case-by-case decision.
Conservative
and Reform Judaism
do not generally follow these practices.
, men and women who are not married to each other and are not immediate blood relatives are not allowed to enter into a secluded situation ("yichud
") in a room or in an area that is private. This measure is taken to prevent the possibility of sexual relations which is prohibited outside of marriage. According to some authorities this applies even between adoptive parents and adoptive children over the age of maturity, while others are more lenient with children adopted from a young age. Simply being in a room together alone does not necessarily constitute seclusion. The situation must be private, where no one else is expected to enter. Originally, this prohibition applied only to married women secluded with men other than their husbands, but it was extended to include single women. According to the Talmud
, this extension occurred in the time of King David, when his son Amnon raped Absalom's sister, Tamar. On the issue of elevators, opinions vary; some allow yichud in an elevator for a time of no more than 30 seconds, while others forbid it under all circumstances, partly due to the possibility of an elevator getting stuck.
Conservative
and Reform Judaism
do not regard these rules as applicable.
, creating separate men's and women's sections. This idea comes from the old Jewish practice during the times of the temple in Jerusalem when there was a women's balcony in the Ezrat Nashim to separate the male and female spectators at the special Succot celebrations. The is also a prophecy in Zechariah (Zechariah 12:12) which talks about men and women mourning separately. The Talmud took this account and inferred that if men and women should be separate in times of mourning, then they certainly should be separate in times of happiness.
Mechitzot are usually seen in Orthodox synagogues to separate the men and women. Conservative synagogues rarely have Mechitzas because the conservative movement puts a strong emphasis on egalitarianism, so that men and women should have equal roles in the prayer service. In Reform synagogues, they are never seen. (The original German Reform synagogues had balconies, although in modified form.)
. Observance of these rules varies from aspirational to mandatory to routine across the spectrum of Orthodox stricture and observance.
Judaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
and has its greatest influence as a concept within Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism , is the approach to Judaism which adheres to the traditional interpretation and application of the laws and ethics of the Torah as legislated in the Talmudic texts by the Sanhedrin and subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and...
. It is used to describe both the character trait of modesty and humility
Humility
Humility is the quality of being modest, and respectful. Humility, in various interpretations, is widely seen as a virtue in many religious and philosophical traditions, being connected with notions of transcendent unity with the universe or the divine, and of egolessness.-Term:The term "humility"...
, as well as a group of Jewish religious laws
Halakha
Halakha — also transliterated Halocho , or Halacha — is the collective body of Jewish law, including biblical law and later talmudic and rabbinic law, as well as customs and traditions.Judaism classically draws no distinction in its laws between religious and ostensibly non-religious life; Jewish...
pertaining to conduct in general and especially between the sexes. The term is frequently used with regard to the rules of dress for women.
Hebrew Bible and Talmud
HumilityHumility
Humility is the quality of being modest, and respectful. Humility, in various interpretations, is widely seen as a virtue in many religious and philosophical traditions, being connected with notions of transcendent unity with the universe or the divine, and of egolessness.-Term:The term "humility"...
is a paramount ideal within Judaism. Moses
Moses
Moses was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed...
is referred to as "exceedingly humble, more than any man in the world" (Book of Numbers
Book of Numbers
The Book of Numbers is the fourth book of the Hebrew Bible, and the fourth of five books of the Jewish Torah/Pentateuch....
12:3). Though the adjective used of Moses is anav (ענו), and not tzana (צָנַע), the cognate of the noun tzniut. The verb tzana "to be humble" occurs in Proverbs 11:2 and, (in the hiphil), "walk humbly" in Micah 6:8.
The Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
states that humility is one of the characteristic traits of the Jewish people (Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
, Tractate Yevamot 79a).
Description
Tzniut includes a group of laws concerned with modesty, in both dress and behavior. In the Babylonian Talmud, RabbiRabbi
In Judaism, a rabbi is a teacher of Torah. This title derives from the Hebrew word רבי , meaning "My Master" , which is the way a student would address a master of Torah...
Elazar Bar Tzadok connected the injunction at Micah
Book of Micah
The Book of Micah is one of fifteen prophetic books in the Hebrew bible/Old Testament, and the sixth of the twelve minor prophets. It records the sayings of Mikayahu, meaning "Who is like Yahweh?", an 8th century prophet from the village of Moresheth in Judah...
6:8 to "walk humbly (hatzne'a leches) with your God" as referring to modesty and discretion in dress and in behavior (Tractate Sukkah
Sukkah
A sukkah is a temporary hut constructed for use during the week-long Jewish festival of Sukkot. It is topped with branches and often well decorated with autumnal, harvest or Judaic themes...
49b).
In the legal dimension of Orthodox
Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism , is the approach to Judaism which adheres to the traditional interpretation and application of the laws and ethics of the Torah as legislated in the Talmudic texts by the Sanhedrin and subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and...
Rabbinic literature, the issue of Tzniut is discussed in more technical terms: how much skin may a person expose, and so on. Notwithstanding these details, the concept of humility and modesty as a positive character trait, a practice, and a way of life—a "way of walking"
Halakha
Halakha — also transliterated Halocho , or Halacha — is the collective body of Jewish law, including biblical law and later talmudic and rabbinic law, as well as customs and traditions.Judaism classically draws no distinction in its laws between religious and ostensibly non-religious life; Jewish...
—is also taught to be important in Rabbinic literature. This awareness informs the concept and the practice of Tzniut in its rules and details.
Dress
The principal guiding point of tzniut in regard to dress is that a Jew should not dress in a way that attracts attention. This does not mean dressing poorly, but neither men nor women should dress in a way that overly emphasizes the physical or attracts undue attention.Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism , is the approach to Judaism which adheres to the traditional interpretation and application of the laws and ethics of the Torah as legislated in the Talmudic texts by the Sanhedrin and subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and...
requires both men and women to substantially cover their bodies. In Haredi
Haredi Judaism
Haredi or Charedi/Chareidi Judaism is the most conservative form of Orthodox Judaism, often referred to as ultra-Orthodox. A follower of Haredi Judaism is called a Haredi ....
communities, men generally wear long trousers and often long-sleeve shirts, and women wear blouses with sleeves below the elbow and skirts that cover the knees. Some women try not to follow fashion, while others wear fashionable but modest clothing.
In Modern Orthodox
Modern Orthodox Judaism
Modern Orthodox Judaism is a movement within Orthodox Judaism that attempts to synthesize Jewish values and the observance of Jewish law, with the secular, modern world....
practice for women it is generally accepted for sleeves to cover the elbows and shirts to cover the collarbone, skirts to cover the knees with or without tights, and trousers not to be worn in the presence of men. Some Modern Orthodox women will wear sleeves up to a fist's length (tefach) above their elbows or even short sleeves, and some do not cover their collarbones.
Haredi women avoid skirts with slits, preferring instead kick-pleat
Pleat
A pleat is a type of fold formed by doubling fabric back upon itself and securing it in place. It is commonly used in clothing and upholstery to gather a wide piece of fabric to a narrower circumference....
s. They also avoid overly eye-catching colors, especially bright red. Some insist on closed-toe shoes and always wear stockings, the thickness of which varies by community. In some Haredi communities women wear loose vests over shirts. Men must wear shirts with sleeves. Some Modern Orthodox men will wear shorts, but Haredi men will not, and manyModesty: Not Just For Women, Patheos
Patheos
- History :Patheos was founded in 2008 by Leo and Cathie Brunnick, both web technology professionals and residents of Denver, Colorado. Leo, a non-practicing Catholic, and Cathie, a Lutheran-turned-Evangelical, started the project the week they were married as they tried to blend their...
will not wear short sleeves at all. Sandals without socks, while generally not worn in a synagogue, are usually accepted in Modern Orthodox and Religious Zionist Communities in Israel for daily dress. Haredi Ashkenazi practice discourages sandals without socks both in and out of the synagogue. Haredi Sefardic communities tend to accept sandals at least outside of synagogue and sometimes in synagogue as well. Dress in a synagogue and, according to many, in public should be comparable to that worn by the community when meeting royalty or government.
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out of intellectual currents in Germany in the mid-19th century and took institutional form in the United States in the early 1900s.Conservative Judaism has its roots in the school of thought known as Positive-Historical Judaism,...
formally requires modest dress , although this requirement is often not observed on a day-to-day basis, but is somewhat more observed when attending synagogue. While day-to-day dress often simply reflects the general society, many Conservative synagogues expect somewhat more modest dress (although not necessarily as stringent as in Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism , is the approach to Judaism which adheres to the traditional interpretation and application of the laws and ethics of the Torah as legislated in the Talmudic texts by the Sanhedrin and subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and...
) for synagogue attendance, and may have specific dress requirements to receive synagogue honors (such as being called for a Torah reading
Torah reading
Torah reading is a Jewish religious ritual that involves the public reading of a set of passages from a Torah scroll. The term often refers to the entire ceremony of removing the Torah scroll from the ark, chanting the appropriate excerpt with special cantillation, and returning the scroll to...
). Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism refers to various beliefs, practices and organizations associated with the Reform Jewish movement in North America, the United Kingdom and elsewhere. In general, it maintains that Judaism and Jewish traditions should be modernized and should be compatible with participation in the...
has no religious dress requirements.
Style of dress involves cultural considerations distinct from religious requirements. There are many Conservative and Reform synagogues in which suits and ties are socially expected, while in many Orthodox synagogues (especially in Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
) dress, while meeting religious modesty requirements, is quite casual. Many Haredi
Haredi Judaism
Haredi or Charedi/Chareidi Judaism is the most conservative form of Orthodox Judaism, often referred to as ultra-Orthodox. A follower of Haredi Judaism is called a Haredi ....
and Hassidic communities have special customs and styles of dress which serve to identify members of their communities but regard these special dress features as customs
Minhag
Minhag is an accepted tradition or group of traditions in Judaism. A related concept, Nusach , refers to the traditional order and form of the prayers...
of their communities rather than as general religious requirements expected of all observant Jews.
Hair covering
Sheitel
Sheitel is the Yiddish word for a wig or half-wig worn by Orthodox Jewish married women in order to conform with the requirement of Jewish Law to cover their hair. This practice is part of the modesty-related dress standard called tzniut. The word seems to be derived from the German word...
(wig), the snood
Snood (headgear)
A snood is historically a type of European female headgear, or in modern times a tubular neck scarf. In the most common form the headgear resembles a close-fitting hood worn over the back of the head...
, and the mitpachat (Hebrew: scarf) or tichel
Tichel
The Tichel also called a Mitpachat is a headscarf worn by married Jewish women in compliance with the code of modesty known as Tzniut. Tichels can range from a very simple plain color cotton square with a simple tie in the back to very elaborate fabrics with very complex ties using multiple fabrics...
(Yiddish); some Haredi women cover their hair covering with an additional hat or beret. The practice of covering hair with wigs, or detached hair, is debated among halachic authorities. Many authorities, including Rabbi Moshe Feinstein
Moshe Feinstein
Moshe Feinstein was a Lithuanian Orthodox rabbi, scholar and posek , who was world-renowned for his expertise in Halakha and was regarded by many as the de facto supreme halakhic authority for Orthodox Jewry of North America during his lifetime...
, permitted it, and the Lubavitcher Rebbe
Menachem Mendel Schneerson
Menachem Mendel Schneerson , known as the Lubavitcher Rebbe or just the Rebbe among his followers, was a prominent Hasidic rabbi who was the seventh and last Rebbe of the Chabad-Lubavitch movement. He was fifth in a direct paternal line to the third Chabad-Lubavitch Rebbe, Menachem Mendel...
actively encouraged it, while some authorities forbid it. Observance of this law was nearly entirely out of practice among Modern Observant women a generation ago (except in synagogue), but younger generations are increasingly taking the practice upon themselves. Among Modern Observant women who do cover their hair, the most common form of coverings include a hat or beret; younger women often wear baseball caps and bandannas when dressed casually, and some wear bright and colorful scarves tied in a number of ways . A style of half wig known as a "fall" has become increasingly common in many segments of Modern and Haredi Orthodox communities. It is usually worn with either a hat or headband.
In Yemen
Yemen
The Republic of Yemen , commonly known as Yemen , is a country located in the Middle East, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east....
unmarried girls covered their heads also, like the Muslims there; however, upon their emigration to Israel and other places, this custom has been abandoned. While Rebbe Aharon Roth, founder of Shomer Emunim
Shomer Emunim (Hasidic dynasty)
Shomer Emunim is a devout, insular Hasidic group based in Bnei Brak. It was founded in the 20th century by Rabbi Arele Roth....
, praised this custom, no Ashkenazi community, including the most strict Haredi circles, have ever practiced such a custom.
Men, married or not, may cover their heads. The most common head covering is the kippah
Kippah
A kippah or kipa , also known as a yarmulke , kapele , is a hemispherical or platter-shaped head cover, usually made of cloth, often worn by Orthodox Jewish men to fulfill the customary requirement that their head be covered at all times, and sometimes worn by both men and, less frequently, women...
(Hebrew: skull-cap), known as yarmulke in Yiddish. Most men wear something on their heads at almost all times, while some cover their heads only when performing some religious act, or when eating. Few cover the entire head. Almost all will bathe with the head uncovered, but sleeping varies by community or family practice. The exact nature of this practice, and how binding it is, is a matter of dispute among halachic authorities. Wearing a hat is not required by Jewish law, and those who wear a hat always wear a kippah underneath; however, there are some rabbis, especially in Hasidic Judaism, who require a double head covering—of kippah and hat or talleth—during prayer.
Conservative
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out of intellectual currents in Germany in the mid-19th century and took institutional form in the United States in the early 1900s.Conservative Judaism has its roots in the school of thought known as Positive-Historical Judaism,...
and Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism refers to various beliefs, practices and organizations associated with the Reform Jewish movement in North America, the United Kingdom and elsewhere. In general, it maintains that Judaism and Jewish traditions should be modernized and should be compatible with participation in the...
do not generally require women to wear head coverings. Some more traditional Conservative synagogues ask that married women cover their heads during services. However, some more liberal Conservative synagogues suggest that women, married or not, wear head-coverings similar to those worn by men
Kippah
A kippah or kipa , also known as a yarmulke , kapele , is a hemispherical or platter-shaped head cover, usually made of cloth, often worn by Orthodox Jewish men to fulfill the customary requirement that their head be covered at all times, and sometimes worn by both men and, less frequently, women...
, and some require it, not for modesty, but as a feminist
Feminism
Feminism is a collection of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for women. Its concepts overlap with those of women's rights...
gesture of egalitarianism
Egalitarianism
Egalitarianism is a trend of thought that favors equality of some sort among moral agents, whether persons or animals. Emphasis is placed upon the fact that equality contains the idea of equity of quality...
. Almost all Conservative synagogues require men to wear a head covering (usually a kippah), but in Reform synagogues there is often no requirement.
Orthodox Judaism
In Orthodox JudaismOrthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism , is the approach to Judaism which adheres to the traditional interpretation and application of the laws and ethics of the Torah as legislated in the Talmudic texts by the Sanhedrin and subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and...
men are generally not allowed to hear women sing, a prohibition called kol isha. This is derived from Song of Solomon
Song of Solomon
The Song of Songs of Solomon, commonly referred to as Song of Songs or Song of Solomon, is a book of the Hebrew Bible—one of the megillot —found in the last section of the Tanakh, known as the Ketuvim...
: "Let me hear your voice, for your voice is sweet ("arev") and your face is beautiful." The Talmud classifies this as ervah (literally "nakedness"). The majority view of halachic authorities is that this prohibition applies at all times, and forbids a man to pray or study Torah in the presence of a woman who is singing, similar to other prohibitions classified as ervah. A minority view holds that the prohibition of praying or studying in the presence of kol isha applies only while reciting the Shema Yisrael
Shema Yisrael
Shema Yisrael are the first two words of a section of the Torah that is a centerpiece of the morning and evening Jewish prayer services...
prayer.
There is debate between poskim
Posek
Posek is the term in Jewish law for "decider"—a legal scholar who decides the Halakha in cases of law where previous authorities are inconclusive or in those situations where no halakhic precedent exists....
(authorities of Jewish law) whether the prohibition applies to a recorded voice, where the singer cannot be seen, where the woman is not known to the man who is listening and where he has never seen her or a picture of her.
There are also opinions, following Samson Raphael Hirsch
Samson Raphael Hirsch
Samson Raphael Hirsch was a German rabbi best known as the intellectual founder of the Torah im Derech Eretz school of contemporary Orthodox Judaism...
and Azriel Hildesheimer
Azriel Hildesheimer
Esriel Hildesheimer was a German rabbi and leader of Orthodox Judaism. He is regarded as a pioneering modernizer of Orthodox Judaism in Germany and as a founder of Modern Orthodox Judaism.-Biography:...
, that exclude singing in mixed groups from this prohibition, such as synagogue prayer or dinner-table Zemirot
Zemirot
Zemirot or Z'mirot are Jewish hymns, usually sung in the Hebrew or Aramaic languages, but sometimes also in Yiddish or Ladino. The best known zemirot are those sung around the table during Shabbat and Jewish holidays...
(religious songs), based on the idea that the female voice is not distinctly heard as separate from the group in these cases (“Trei Kali Lo Mishtamai,” two voices cannot be heard simultaneously - Megila 21b). However Yehiel Yaakov Weinberg found this explanation unsatisfactory, and instead proposed, following the Sdei Chemed quoting the Divrei Cheifetz, that the kol isha prohibition does not apply to women singing zemirot, songs to children, and lamentations for the dead, because in these contexts, men do not derive pleasure from the woman’s voice.
In a novel ruling, Rabbi David Bigman holds that kol isha only applies when there is sexual pleasure involved. According to the majority of authorities, i.e. those who did not link kol isha to Kriat Shema, kol isha is in fact similar to gazing at a woman's little finger, which is another case in Berachot ibid. But the Rishonim
Rishonim
"Rishon" redirects here. For the preon model in particle physics, see Harari Rishon Model. For the Israeli town, see Rishon LeZion.Rishonim were the leading Rabbis and Poskim who lived approximately during the 11th to 15th centuries, in the era before the writing of the Shulkhan Arukh and...
rule that gazing at a woman's finger only applies when done expressly for sexual pleasure, or when there is any sexual pleasure involved. Thus, it stands to reason (no previous authority has explicitly stated as such) that kol isha is similar, and has parallel by-laws applicable to it. Therefore, Rabbi Bigman states, "There is no prohibition whatsoever of innocent singing; rather, only singing intended for sexual stimulation, or flirtatious singing, is forbidden. Although this distinction is not explicit in the early rabbinic sources, it closely fits the character of the prohibition as described in different contexts in the Talmud and the Rishonim, and it is supported by the language of the Rambam, the Tur, and the Shulchan Aruch."
In a similarly novel ruling Rabbi Avraham Shammah comes to the same conclusion as Rabbi Bigman. He argues that ideologically, the laws of tzniut are defined by time and place, according to what people are accustomed to, and what gives them sexual pleasure. He quotes the Maharam Alkashar (a 15th century rabbinic exile from Spain), who says
Response: Indeed, there is no concern about that hair [that is outside of the braid], because it is customary to reveal it ... and that [which is said] ‘a woman’s hair is a sexual enticement’ is only referring to hair that it is usual to be covered, but a person is accustomed to that which is usually uncovered [and therefore is not aroused] and it is permitted ... Likewise, the Ra'avya wrote that all those [things] that we mentioned for [concern about] sexual enticement are specifically for things that are not customarily exposed ... all is according to the customs and the locations.Rabbi Shammah cites many sources, such as Maharshal and Rabbi Ovadia Yosef
Ovadia Yosef
Ovadia Yosef is the former Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel, a recognised Talmudic scholar and foremost halakhic authority.He currently serves as the spiritual leader of the Shas political party in the Israeli parliament...
, who permit various violations of their theretofore normative laws of tzniut, on the basis that the behavior in question is not sexually enticing in that time and place. In regards to kol isha specifically, he notes that
R. [Yehiel Yaakov] Weinberg cites Maimonides Hilkhot Isurei Bi’a (Laws of Forbidden Sexual Relations) 21:2, in which Maimonides states that "one who looks even at a woman’s little finger with the intent to derive [erotic] pleasure is as if he looked at her privates and even to hear the voice of a forbidden woman or to see her hair is forbidden." R. Weinberg points out that the meaning of Maimonides’ words is that the prohibition to hear a woman’s voice is only if there is intent to thereby derive erotic pleasure.Rabbi Weinberg relies also on the Sdei Chemed, quoting the Divrei Cheifetz, that Shabbat hymns and funeral dirges, when sung by women, are not kol isha, as men do not derive sexual pleasure from them. Rabbi Shammah simply takes this logic further, and concludes that if a man judges himself sincerely and honestly, that in a particular case, he will not be enticed by a woman's voice, he may listen to her sing, even ordinary songs in concerts, and the like, depending on the case. He closes saying that
From my childhood [growing up under Syrian Jewish-Orthodox immigrants to Israel] until my adulthood I do not remember closing my ears, nor was I instructed to do so, and I heard the best music, both from the Orient and the West, even when performed by female singers, and even at live performances. Apparently, the principle is based on the fact that there is no intent here for some forbidden pleasure. [People] have testified to me that there were Torah-observant Jews at the performances of the famous Egyptian singer, Umm Kulthum [considered by some to be Egypt’s most famous and distinguished twentieth-century singer], and even more than that, they listened to her songs and learned them well, even though some of the songs had inappropriate words. Prayer leaders (among them scholars) used her tunes [in the prayer services], until this day, with the approval of halakhic authorities, who knew quite well the source [of these tunes].
On the other hand, against the novel and minority view of Rabbis Bigman and Shammah, Rabbi Cherney notes that,
[W]e find that Shmuel's claim that it [i.e., various violations of the normative laws of tzniut] is permitted "for the sake of Heaven, הכל לשם שמים," [meaning, the act is normatively forbidden, but permitted because it gives no sexual pleasure in the given time and place] is quoted by later authorities. R. Moses IsserlesRabbi Yehuda Henkin, based especially on the Maharshal, permits men and women to mix in general society, based on the fact that this is no longer sexually enticing today, but he, like Rabbi Ovadia Yosef, likewise forbids this same argument to be applied to kol isha.Moses IsserlesMoses Isserles, also spelled Moshe Isserlis, , was an eminent Ashkenazic rabbi, talmudist, and posek, renowned for his fundamental work of Halakha , entitled ha-Mapah , an inline commentary on the Shulkhan Aruch...
(the Ramo) quotes Shmuel's liberal view, as stated by Tosafot. But we should note that although Ramo obviously accepts this principle, he does not quote it in the context of Kol isha. In our own generation, R. Ovadia Yosef [who elsewhere is willing to be lenient on certain normative laws of tzniut when men are no longer enticed by them in the given time and place] has expressed the opinion that, "you should not let your heart seize the argument that nowadays since we are accustomed to the voices of women, we need not be concerned that [the voice arouses lewd thoughts], for we may not say these things out of our own understanding if it is not mentioned in the authorities."
Reform and Conservative Judaism
Conservative JudaismConservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out of intellectual currents in Germany in the mid-19th century and took institutional form in the United States in the early 1900s.Conservative Judaism has its roots in the school of thought known as Positive-Historical Judaism,...
interprets the relevant passage of the Talmud as expressing a Rabbi's opinion rather than imposing a requirement. Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism refers to various beliefs, practices and organizations associated with the Reform Jewish movement in North America, the United Kingdom and elsewhere. In general, it maintains that Judaism and Jewish traditions should be modernized and should be compatible with participation in the...
does not regard this traditional law
Halakha
Halakha — also transliterated Halocho , or Halacha — is the collective body of Jewish law, including biblical law and later talmudic and rabbinic law, as well as customs and traditions.Judaism classically draws no distinction in its laws between religious and ostensibly non-religious life; Jewish...
as applicable to modern times.
Touch
In Orthodox JudaismOrthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism , is the approach to Judaism which adheres to the traditional interpretation and application of the laws and ethics of the Torah as legislated in the Talmudic texts by the Sanhedrin and subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and...
, men and women who are not married and are not closely related are generally not allowed to touch each other. Many observant married couples will also not touch one another in public. A person who refrains from touching the opposite sex is said to be shomer negiah
Negiah
Negiah , literally "touch," is the concept in Halakha that forbids or restricts physical contact with a member of the opposite sex...
. Shmirath negiah
Negiah
Negiah , literally "touch," is the concept in Halakha that forbids or restricts physical contact with a member of the opposite sex...
applies to touching which is b' derech chiba (in an affectionate manner). According to some authorities, mainly of Modern Orthodox background, a quick handshake, particularly in the context of earning a living in a business setting, does not fall under this category. However, people who are stringently shomer negiah will avoid shaking hands with a member of the opposite sex, even in a business context. This is almost universally observed within the Haredi community and somewhat observed within the Modern Orthodox community where the term originated in recent decades.
Examples of relatives that one may touch include parents, grandparents, grandchildren, and one's spouse if she is not niddah
Niddah
Niddah is a Hebrew term describing a woman during menstruation, or a woman who has menstruated and not yet completed the associated requirement of immersion in a mikveh ....
(menstruating). This prohibition is colloquially called shmirath negiah
Negiah
Negiah , literally "touch," is the concept in Halakha that forbids or restricts physical contact with a member of the opposite sex...
(observance of the laws of touching
Negiah
Negiah , literally "touch," is the concept in Halakha that forbids or restricts physical contact with a member of the opposite sex...
) or shomer negiah
Negiah
Negiah , literally "touch," is the concept in Halakha that forbids or restricts physical contact with a member of the opposite sex...
. Whether or not children adopted at a young age are included in this prohibition is a matter of dispute and case-by-case decision.
Conservative
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out of intellectual currents in Germany in the mid-19th century and took institutional form in the United States in the early 1900s.Conservative Judaism has its roots in the school of thought known as Positive-Historical Judaism,...
and Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism refers to various beliefs, practices and organizations associated with the Reform Jewish movement in North America, the United Kingdom and elsewhere. In general, it maintains that Judaism and Jewish traditions should be modernized and should be compatible with participation in the...
do not generally follow these practices.
Yichud
In Orthodox JudaismOrthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism , is the approach to Judaism which adheres to the traditional interpretation and application of the laws and ethics of the Torah as legislated in the Talmudic texts by the Sanhedrin and subsequently developed and applied by the later authorities known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and...
, men and women who are not married to each other and are not immediate blood relatives are not allowed to enter into a secluded situation ("yichud
Yichud
The prohibition of yichud , in Halakha is the impermissibility of seclusion of a man and a woman who are not married to each other in a private area. Such seclusion is prohibited in order to prevent the two from being tempted or having the opportunity to commit adulterous or promiscuous acts.The...
") in a room or in an area that is private. This measure is taken to prevent the possibility of sexual relations which is prohibited outside of marriage. According to some authorities this applies even between adoptive parents and adoptive children over the age of maturity, while others are more lenient with children adopted from a young age. Simply being in a room together alone does not necessarily constitute seclusion. The situation must be private, where no one else is expected to enter. Originally, this prohibition applied only to married women secluded with men other than their husbands, but it was extended to include single women. According to the Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
, this extension occurred in the time of King David, when his son Amnon raped Absalom's sister, Tamar. On the issue of elevators, opinions vary; some allow yichud in an elevator for a time of no more than 30 seconds, while others forbid it under all circumstances, partly due to the possibility of an elevator getting stuck.
Conservative
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out of intellectual currents in Germany in the mid-19th century and took institutional form in the United States in the early 1900s.Conservative Judaism has its roots in the school of thought known as Positive-Historical Judaism,...
and Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism refers to various beliefs, practices and organizations associated with the Reform Jewish movement in North America, the United Kingdom and elsewhere. In general, it maintains that Judaism and Jewish traditions should be modernized and should be compatible with participation in the...
do not regard these rules as applicable.
Synagogue services
In Orthodox Judaism, men and women are not allowed to mingle during prayer services, and Orthodox synagogues generally include a divider, called a MechitzaMechitza
A mechitza in Jewish Halakha is a partition, particularly one that is used to separate men and women....
, creating separate men's and women's sections. This idea comes from the old Jewish practice during the times of the temple in Jerusalem when there was a women's balcony in the Ezrat Nashim to separate the male and female spectators at the special Succot celebrations. The is also a prophecy in Zechariah (Zechariah 12:12) which talks about men and women mourning separately. The Talmud took this account and inferred that if men and women should be separate in times of mourning, then they certainly should be separate in times of happiness.
Mechitzot are usually seen in Orthodox synagogues to separate the men and women. Conservative synagogues rarely have Mechitzas because the conservative movement puts a strong emphasis on egalitarianism, so that men and women should have equal roles in the prayer service. In Reform synagogues, they are never seen. (The original German Reform synagogues had balconies, although in modified form.)
Observances
There are several levels to the observance of physical and personal modesty (tzniut) according to Orthodox Judaism as derived from various sources in halakhaHalakha
Halakha — also transliterated Halocho , or Halacha — is the collective body of Jewish law, including biblical law and later talmudic and rabbinic law, as well as customs and traditions.Judaism classically draws no distinction in its laws between religious and ostensibly non-religious life; Jewish...
. Observance of these rules varies from aspirational to mandatory to routine across the spectrum of Orthodox stricture and observance.
- Not dwelling on lascivious or immoral thoughts.
- Avoiding staring at members of the opposite sex, particularly at any part of the opposite sex's "private" anatomy.
- Keeping the majority of one's body clothed in respectable clothing at all times.
- Avoiding the company of uncouth individuals or situations where an atmosphere of levity and depravity prevails.
- Avoiding looking at pictures or scenes that will be sexually arousing.
- Refraining from touching a person of the opposite sex, especially in a lingering arousing manner (shaking hands very quickly in greeting between sexes is a point of dispute, and depends on one's rabbi's halachic decision). See negiahNegiahNegiah , literally "touch," is the concept in Halakha that forbids or restricts physical contact with a member of the opposite sex...
. - Not looking at animals or birds copulating.
- Not hugHugA hug is a form of physical intimacy, that usually involves closing or holding the arms around the neck, back, or waist of another person; if more than two persons are involved, this is referred to as a group hug. A hug, sometimes in association with a kiss, eye contact or other gestures, is a...
ging or kissKissA kiss is the act of pressing one's lips against the lips or other body parts of another person or of an object. Cultural connotations of kissing vary widely. Depending on the culture and context, a kiss can express sentiments of love, passion, affection, respect, greeting, friendship, and good...
ing one's spouse in public; among Haredim, no physical contact is permissible. - Although early talmudic and rabbinic sources did not restrict the sexual act, many later authorities have expressed opposition to most forms of sex, with the exception of vaginal-penile intercourse.
See also
- AwrahAwrahAwrah or Awrat is a term used within Islam which denotes the intimate parts of the body, for both men and women, which must be covered with clothing. Exposing the awrah is unlawful in Islam and is regarded as sin...
and hijabHijabThe word "hijab" or "'" refers to both the head covering traditionally worn by Muslim women and modest Muslim styles of dress in general....
(similar concepts in Islam) - Jewish view of marriageJewish view of marriageIn Judaism, marriage is viewed as a contractual bond commanded by God in which a man and a woman come together to create a relationship in which God is directly involved. Though procreation is not the sole purpose, a Jewish marriage is also expected to fulfill the commandment to have children. The...
- NegiahNegiahNegiah , literally "touch," is the concept in Halakha that forbids or restricts physical contact with a member of the opposite sex...
(guidelines for physical contact) - NiddahNiddahNiddah is a Hebrew term describing a woman during menstruation, or a woman who has menstruated and not yet completed the associated requirement of immersion in a mikveh ....
(menstruation laws) - RebbetzinRebbetzinRebbitzin or Rabbanit is the title used for the wife of a rabbi, typically from the Orthodox, or Haredi, and Hasidic Jewish groups...
(rabbi's wife) - Role of women in JudaismRole of women in JudaismThe role of women in Judaism is determined by the Hebrew Bible, the Oral Law , by custom, and by non-religious cultural factors...
- Shalom bayitShalom bayitShalom bayit is the Jewish religious concept of domestic harmony and good relations between husband and wife. In a Jewish court of law, shalom bayit is the Hebrew term for marital reconciliation...
(peace and harmony in the family) - ShidduchShidduchThe Shidduch is a system of matchmaking in which Jewish singles are introduced to one another in Orthodox Jewish communities for the purpose of marriage....
(finding a marriage partner) - YichudYichudThe prohibition of yichud , in Halakha is the impermissibility of seclusion of a man and a woman who are not married to each other in a private area. Such seclusion is prohibited in order to prevent the two from being tempted or having the opportunity to commit adulterous or promiscuous acts.The...
(prohibitions of secluding oneself with someone who is not your immediate blood relative)
External links
- You Are What You Wear
- Tzniut and Women
- "Modesty: Not Just For Women", PatheosPatheos- History :Patheos was founded in 2008 by Leo and Cathie Brunnick, both web technology professionals and residents of Denver, Colorado. Leo, a non-practicing Catholic, and Cathie, a Lutheran-turned-Evangelical, started the project the week they were married as they tried to blend their...
- The Basic Laws of Tznius