Types of military forces in the Napoleonic Wars

The types of military forces in the Napoleonic Wars represented the unique tactical use of distinct military units, or their origin within different Europe

Europe

Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...

an regions. By and large the military forces during the period had not changed significantly from those of the 18th century, although their employment would differ significantly.

Military forces during the Napoleonic Wars

Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...

consisted largely of the three principal combat arms, and several combat support services, and included the infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineers, and logistics troops which were called the army train during the period. The period gave a start to what are today military staffs to help administer and organise forces in the field and in garrisons, and supervise training of conscripts and recruits. Much of the staff work was performed by staff officers and often Aide-de-camp

Aide-de-camp

An aide-de-camp is a personal assistant, secretary, or adjutant to a person of high rank, usually a senior military officer or a head of state...

s to senior officers, and included the officers of the Quartermaster general

Quartermaster general

A Quartermaster general is the staff officer in charge of supplies for a whole army.- The United Kingdom :In the United Kingdom, the Quartermaster-General to the Forces is one of the most senior generals in the British Army...

Combat Arms

Combat Arms of the Napoleonic Armies were those troops that did most of the killing and dying on the battlefields of the wars. For most of the troops this meant either facing their enemy's musket

Musket

A musket is a muzzle-loaded, smooth bore long gun, fired from the shoulder. Muskets were designed for use by infantry. A soldier armed with a musket had the designation musketman or musketeer....

and rifle

Rifle

A rifle is a firearm designed to be fired from the shoulder, with a barrel that has a helical groove or pattern of grooves cut into the barrel walls. The raised areas of the rifling are called "lands," which make contact with the projectile , imparting spin around an axis corresponding to the...

fire at about 150 yards, being fired on by artillery firing cannon balls

Round shot

Round shot is a solid projectile without explosive charge, fired from a cannon. As the name implies, round shot is spherical; its diameter is slightly less than the bore of the gun it is fired from.Round shot was made in early times from dressed stone, but by the 17th century, from iron...

and canister

Canister shot

Canister shot is a kind of anti-personnel ammunition used in cannons. It was similar to the naval grapeshot, but fired smaller and more numerous balls, which did not have to punch through the wooden hull of a ship...

ammunition, or fighting with the sabre

Sabre

The sabre or saber is a kind of backsword that usually has a curved, single-edged blade and a rather large hand guard, covering the knuckles of the hand as well as the thumb and forefinger...

s, lance

Lance

A Lance is a pole weapon or spear designed to be used by a mounted warrior. The lance is longer, stout and heavier than an infantry spear, and unsuited for throwing, or for rapid thrusting. Lances did not have tips designed to intentionally break off or bend, unlike many throwing weapons of the...

s and bayonet

Bayonet

A bayonet is a knife, dagger, sword, or spike-shaped weapon designed to fit in, on, over or underneath the muzzle of a rifle, musket or similar weapon, effectively turning the gun into a spear...

Infantry

The infantry Arm during the Napoleonic Wars had stopped using the grenades of the previous century, and was largely divided into the infantry of the line
Line infantry
Line infantry is a type of infantry which composed the basis of European land armies from the middle of the 17th century to the middle of the 19th century....

which fought in close order formation

Close order formation

A close order formation is a military tactical formation wherein soldiers are close together and regularly arranged for the tactical concentration of force. At about the time of the U.S. Civil War , such combat formations of soldiers became unnecessary, when improved small arms and artillery made...

, and light infantry
Light infantry
Traditionally light infantry were soldiers whose job was to provide a skirmishing screen ahead of the main body of infantry, harassing and delaying the enemy advance. Light infantry was distinct from medium, heavy or line infantry. Heavy infantry were dedicated primarily to fighting in tight...

which fought as skirmishers in open order. Although many units were named guards, they functionally confirmed to the division of the close and open order formation, with light troops often assuming the close order also. More notable were the grenadier units which traditionally had the pick of the largest and strongest conscripts and recruits although this changed over the course of the wars to include the more experienced soldiers.

Grenadiers

The grenadier unit

Military organization

Military organization is the structuring of the armed forces of a state so as to offer military capability required by the national defence policy. In some countries paramilitary forces are included in a nation's armed forces...

s had, by the time of the Napoleonic Wars, ceased using the hand-thrown grenade

Grenade

A grenade is a small explosive device that is projected a safe distance away by its user. Soldiers called grenadiers specialize in the use of grenades. The term hand grenade refers any grenade designed to be hand thrown. Grenade Launchers are firearms designed to fire explosive projectile grenades...

s, and were largely known for being composed of physically big men, frequently relied upon for shock actions.

Infantry of the Line

Infantry of the line were so named for the dominant combat formation

Line (formation)

The line formation is a standard tactical formation which has been used in Early modern warfare.It continues the phalanx formation or shield wall of infantry armed with polearms in use during antiquity and the Middle Ages....

used to deliver a volume of musket fire. Forming the bulk of the Napoleonic armies it was the primary offensive and defensive Arm available to the commanders during the period. Movement in line formation was very slow, and unless the battalion was superbly trained, a breakdown in cohesion was virtually assured, especially in any kind of uneven or wooded terrain

Terrain

Terrain, or land relief, is the vertical and horizontal dimension of land surface. When relief is described underwater, the term bathymetry is used...

. As a result, when movement over such terrain was required over a significant distance troops would move in columns

Column (formation)

A military column is a formation of soldiers marching together in one or more files in which the file is significantly longer than the width of ranks in the formation...

and then deploy into line at their destination.

In addition, the line formation was vulnerable to cavalry charges, particularly from the flank

Flanking maneuver

In military tactics, a flanking maneuver, also called a flank attack, is an attack on the sides of an opposing force. If a flanking maneuver succeeds, the opposing force would be surrounded from two or more directions, which significantly reduces the maneuverability of the outflanked force and its...

s and rear, and these attacks usually resulted in the complete breakdown of cohesion and even destruction of the unit unless it was able to "form square

Infantry square

An infantry square is a combat formation an infantry unit forms in close order when threatened with cavalry attack.-Very early history:The formation was described by Plutarch and used by the Romans, and was developed from an earlier circular formation...

Light infantry

The light infantry

Light infantry

Traditionally light infantry were soldiers whose job was to provide a skirmishing screen ahead of the main body of infantry, harassing and delaying the enemy advance. Light infantry was distinct from medium, heavy or line infantry. Heavy infantry were dedicated primarily to fighting in tight...

variously known in different armies by different names where first introduced into the regular armies during the wars of the 18th century as irregular troops, but became permanent parts of regular Napoleonic armies either as units in their own right, or as companies in the line infantry battalion

Battalion

A battalion is a military unit of around 300–1,200 soldiers usually consisting of between two and seven companies and typically commanded by either a Lieutenant Colonel or a Colonel...

s. Perceiving themselves as superior troops due to being required to engage the enemy in small groups ahead of the other troops, requiring greater initiative

Initiative

In political science, an initiative is a means by which a petition signed by a certain minimum number of registered voters can force a public vote...

and skill. Light infantry were also fully trained to fight in formation and so functioned as both line and light infantry when required.

Skirmishers

Many armies contained other light troops other than the officially designated 'light infantry'. These units fought as dedicated skirmisher units ahead of the main force, such as the French Voltigeurs or the German Jäger

Jäger (military)

Jäger is a term that was adopted in the Enlightenment era in German-speaking states and others influenced by German military practice to describe a kind of light infantry, and it has continued in that use since then....

Cavalry

The cavalry of the period had retained its role from the 19th century, although the mounted grenadiers

Grenadiers à Cheval de la Garde Impériale

The Grenadiers à Cheval de la Garde Impériale constituted a heavy cavalry regiment in the Consular, then Imperial Guard during the French Consulate and First French Empire respectively...

had also abandoned their grenades, and only retaining their names. For the most part the cavalry were an offensive Arm, either used to find the enemy, or as a manoeuvre force to deliver a physical shock to the infantry, dependent mostly on their sabres and lances for causing casualties. The largest component of all armies during the period were the dragoon

Dragoon

The word dragoon originally meant mounted infantry, who were trained in horse riding as well as infantry fighting skills. However, usage altered over time and during the 18th century, dragoons evolved into conventional light cavalry units and personnel...

s, but due to lack of adequate sized horses light cavalry soon became a large part of the armies.

Battle cavalry

Battle cavalry

Heavy cavalry

Heavy cavalry is a class of cavalry whose primary role was to engage in direct combat with enemy forces . Although their equipment differed greatly depending on the region and historical period, they were generally mounted on large powerful horses, and were often equipped with some form of scale,...

were all cavalry units that mounted large horses and were used to deliver a physical shock to either enemy cavalry or infantry. They were so called from the 18th century belief that they were the decides of the battle, always kept as a final reserve

Military reserve

A military reserve, tactical reserve, or strategic reserve is a group of military personnel or units which are initially not committed to a battle by their commander so that they are available to address unforeseen situations or exploit suddenly developing...

to be used to break the enemy ranks. Although many still wore the cuirass

Cuirass

A cuirass is a piece of armour, formed of a single or multiple pieces of metal or other rigid material, which covers the front of the torso...

, and therefore many regiments were called cuirassier
Cuirassier
Cuirassiers were mounted cavalry soldiers equipped with armour and firearms, first appearing in late 15th-century Europe. They were the successors of the medieval armoured knights...

s during the previous century, and were descendants of armoured cavalry before them, many like the carabiniers did not, and were later referred by writers as "heavy cavalry" for the size of their horses.

Dragoons

Dragoon

s were the less glamorous but most numerically significant part of the cavalry Arm although their origin was in mounted infantry

Mounted infantry

Mounted infantry were soldiers who rode horses instead of marching, but actually fought on foot . The original dragoons were essentially mounted infantry...

. During the period dragoons were frequently used in the battle cavalry role in addition to their traditional role. They were also equipped with either carbine

Carbine

A carbine , from French carabine, is a longarm similar to but shorter than a rifle or musket. Many carbines are shortened versions of full rifles, firing the same ammunition at a lower velocity due to a shorter barrel length....

s or the characteristically long dragoon musket.

Light cavalry

Light cavalry

Light cavalry refers to lightly armed and lightly armored troops mounted on horses, as opposed to heavy cavalry, where the riders are heavily armored...

were utilised for their speed and agility functioning primarily as reconnaissance and screening troops. They were also used for skirmishing, raiding and communications. Many light cavalry types evolved flamboyant uniforms, particularly the hussar

Hussar

Hussar refers to a number of types of light cavalry which originated in Hungary in the 14th century, tracing its roots from Serbian medieval cavalry tradition, brought to Hungary in the course of the Serb migrations, which began in the late 14th century....

s, these had originated in Hungary

Hungary

Hungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...

and they continued to be recruited from there by the army of Austria

Imperial and Royal Army during the Napoleonic Wars

The Imperial and Royal Army was that of the Austrian Empire, formed on 11 August 1804 preceding the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire ruled by the Habsburgs, under Emperor Francis II .-Background to the army:...

. By the time of the wars Hussar units were found in all armies. Irregular Cossack

Cossack

Cossacks are a group of predominantly East Slavic people who originally were members of democratic, semi-military communities in what is today Ukraine and Southern Russia inhabiting sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower Dnieper and Don basins and who played an important role in the...

cavalry were of great use to the Russian army in harassing the enemy lines of communication and conducting raid

Raid (military)

Raid, also known as depredation, is a military tactic or operational warfare mission which has a specific purpose and is not normally intended to capture and hold terrain, but instead finish with the raiding force quickly retreating to a previous defended position prior to the enemy forces being...

Lancers

Lancer

Uhlan

Uhlans were Polish light cavalry armed with lances, sabres and pistols. The title was later used by lancer regiments in the Russian, Prussian, and Austrian armies....

cavalry, known in many armies as 'Uhlans', were exclusive to a few armies at the beginning of the wars but came to be used by nearly all the combatant nations as the wars progressed. They were valued for the significant advantage they had in a charge due to the long reach of the lance which allowed them gain first strike at enemy cavalry and infantry alike, though they were highly vulnerable if forced into a near stationary melee. Frequently used as an anti-cavalry force.

Artillery

Originally applied to any group of infantry primarily armed with projectile weapons, artillery has over time become limited in meaning to refer only to those engines of war that operate by projection of munitions far beyond the range of effect of personal weapons...

of the Napoleonic Wars continued to use the cannon

Cannon

A cannon is any piece of artillery that uses gunpowder or other usually explosive-based propellents to launch a projectile. Cannon vary in caliber, range, mobility, rate of fire, angle of fire, and firepower; different forms of cannon combine and balance these attributes in varying degrees,...

and howitzer

Howitzer

A howitzer is a type of artillery piece characterized by a relatively short barrel and the use of comparatively small propellant charges to propel projectiles at relatively high trajectories, with a steep angle of descent...

s of the previous century. These were smooth-bore, heavy, cast artillery pieces moved by limbers, usually at a slow pace.

Siege artillery

Siege artillery were very heavy cannon, howitzer and mortar

Mortar (weapon)

A mortar is an indirect fire weapon that fires explosive projectiles known as bombs at low velocities, short ranges, and high-arcing ballistic trajectories. It is typically muzzle-loading and has a barrel length less than 15 times its caliber....

artillery pieces used to force surrender of fortresses during a siege

Siege

A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit". Generally speaking, siege warfare is a form of constant, low intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static...

Field artillery

Field artillery usually employed cannon

Cannon

and howitzer

Howitzer

s to fire directly

Direct fire

Direct fire refers to the launching of a projectile directly at a target on a relatively flat trajectory. The firing weapon must have a sighting device and an unobstructed line of sight to the target, which means no objects or friendly units can be between it and the target...

into visible enemy troops, firing either ball or canister ammunition measured in the weight of the cannon ball (in pounds). The heavier pieces were sometimes known as "position artillery" and were deployed in the same position for the duration of the battle due to the difficulty of moving them.

Horse artillery

Artillery in which the crews rode rather than walked with their pieces became known as horse artillery

Horse artillery

Horse artillery was a type of light, fast-moving and fast-firing artillery which provided highly mobile fire support to European and American armies from the 17th to the early 20th century...

, and was also an innovation of the previous century, but became more widespread during the Napoleonic Wars. Usually attached to the cavalry units to provide them with supporting fire from smaller cannon then their field artillery counterparts.

Support Services

Support services were all the multitude of troops that ensured the Combat Arms could manoeuvre and fight.

Administrative staffs

The administrative staffs of the armies were largely responsible for the operational matters relating to the conduct of campaigns such as obtaining intelligence, transmitting orders, and ensuring the delivery of ammunition to troops.

Quartermaster staffs

The quartermaster staffs during the period were largely responsible for ensuring the armies had adequate living quarters

Barracks

Barracks are specialised buildings for permanent military accommodation; the word may apply to separate housing blocks or to complete complexes. Their main object is to separate soldiers from the civilian population and reinforce discipline, training and esprit de corps. They were sometimes called...

and provisions (water, food and clothing) for troops and animals to continue the campaign. They also often served in the intelligence gathering capacity as Quartermaster scouts due to their need to be located somewhat ahead of the marching troops when surveying the locations for suitable camp-sites or bivouacs.

Engineers

Usually part of the artillery Arm, the military engineer

Military engineer

In military science, engineering refers to the practice of designing, building, maintaining and dismantling military works, including offensive, defensive and logistical structures, to shape the physical operating environment in war...

s were responsible for the building and destruction of field defences, conduct of sieges, and construction and demolition of bridges.

Pontonniers

The pontonniers continued in their 18th century role of erecting the pontoon

Pontoon bridge

A pontoon bridge or floating bridge is a bridge that floats on water and in which barge- or boat-like pontoons support the bridge deck and its dynamic loads. While pontoon bridges are usually temporary structures, some are used for long periods of time...

s that were used to cross rivers where no bridge was available, or where one was destroyed by the enemy.

Sappers

Sapper

A sapper, pioneer or combat engineer is a combatant soldier who performs a wide variety of combat engineering duties, typically including, but not limited to, bridge-building, laying or clearing minefields, demolitions, field defences, general construction and building, as well as road and airfield...

s, also known as pioneers, were originally the troops that were used for digging trenches and fortifications during sieges. By the time of the Napoleonic Wars a detachment of sappers was usually serving with infantry and cavalry regiment

Regiment

A regiment is a major tactical military unit, composed of variable numbers of batteries, squadrons or battalions, commanded by a colonel or lieutenant colonel...

s to help with demolition of gates and fences to allow easier movement by these units. Sappers were chosen for their large size and physical strength. A distinctive piece of equipment of a sapper was the axe, usually a double-handed implement with a broad head.

Miners

Less well known during the period, the military miners had a long history, and were used to mine the tunnels during sieges in which the explosive charges were emplaced to demolish parts of the fortification's wall, creating a breach.

The army train

The Army train was the Service that ensured, with varying degree of efficiency during the period, of delivering to the troops everything they could not carry themselves. Often divided among the regimental and general trains, the French Service was considered the best in Europe during the period.

Medical services

Although the military medical

Military medicine

The term military medicine has a number of potential connotations. It may mean:*A medical specialty, specifically a branch of occupational medicine attending to the medical risks and needs of soldiers, sailors and other service members...

services ware rudimentary during the Wars, they existed, and the experience of military doctors and surgeons during the conflicts contributed significantly to advancement of medical science later in the century.

Irregular troops

Although arguably the best known of the troops that did not serve as permanent parts of the Napoleonic armies were the Cossacks, almost all major armies of the period employed these, with the Spanish guerrilleros later giving their name to a new form of guerrilla warfare

Guerrilla warfare