Racism in Australia
Encyclopedia
Racism in Australia has been documented since the arrival of Europeans in 1788. As the diversity of cultural and racial backgrounds within Australia increased, racism has remained an important local issue.
an contact, it has been estimated the absolute minimum pre-1788 population was 315,000, while recent archaeological finds suggest that a population of 750,000 could have been sustained.
With the establishment of European settlement and their subsequent expansion, the indigenous populations were progressively forced into neighbouring territories. Violent conflict between Indigenous Australians
and European settlers described as the Australian frontier wars
arose out this expansion, by the mid-late 19th century, populations were forcibly relocated to land reserves and missions. The nature of many of these land reserves and missions enabled disease to spread quickly and many were closed as resident numbers dropped, with the remaining residents being moved to other land reserves and missions into the 20th century.
and Torres Strait Islander descent who were removed from their families by Australian Federal and State agencies and church missions
, under acts
of parliament. The removals occurred in the period between approximately 1869 and 1969, although in some places children were still being taken in the 1970s.
Historians such as Henry Reynolds
have argued that this constitutes genocide.
In April 2000, the Aboriginal Affairs Minister John Herron
, presented a report in the Australian Parliament that questioned whether there had been a "Stolen Generation", arguing that only 10% of Aboriginal children had been removed, and they did not constitute an entire "generation". The report received media attention and there were protests.
On 13 February 2008 Prime Minister Kevin Rudd presented an apology for the "Stolen Generation" as a motion
in Parliament.
is a concept in the law of Australia
that recognises in certain cases there was and is a continued beneficial legal interest in land held by local indigenous Australians
which survived the acquisition of title to the land by the Crown at the time that the Crown acquired sovereignty of Australia.
), South Asians and Kanakas (South Pacific islanders). Popular support for White Australia, always strong, was bolstered at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 when the Australian delegation led the fight to defeat a Japanese-sponsored racial-equality amendment to the League of Nations Covenant.
was ahead of its time in Western Sydney
, a suburban region with a long history of industrial production and migrant settlement. Many of its attempts to build an inclusive "cultural foundation" have been picked up by state governments, including council-funded social clubs for seniors, the provision of community services in major community languages, and the securing of places of worship through rezoning. All of these initiatives are aimed at public involvement rather than antiracist "integrating" strategies.
Institutional racism
is also seen in Australia within institutions, corporations, universities, etc. Government institutions are often cited racist with Indigenous people Racial abuse and vilification is commonplace in Australian sport, according to a new report by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission
(HREOC).The report, What's the Score? A survey of cultural diversity and racism in Australian sport, says Aboriginal and other ethnic groups are under-represented in Australian sport, and suggests they are turned off organised sport because they fear racial vilification
.
The inequalities suffered by Aborigines have long been widely documented by historians and reporters such as the left-wing journalist John Pilger
. As noted by Professor Colin Tatz
in an interview with Pilger, in relation to an IOC representative who was seemingly unaware of Aboriginal socio-economic conditions when sent to Australia to see whether or not it was a “fit and proper country” for hosting the Olympics:
“On the salt pan at Lombadina, Aborigines play with two saplings stuck in the ground. If he had inspected these conditions, he would have been looking at third- and fourth-world sporting facilities. He would have seen Aborigines kicking a piece of leather stuffed with paper because they don’t possess a single football or have access to the kind of sports facilities that every white Australian takes for granted, even in poor working-class suburbs where there is a municipal pool, a municipal ground, a cricket pitch or a tennis court or a park of some sort – these things are totally absent in 95 per cent of Aboriginal communitities.”
Since the end of World War II
, Australia has had a programme of mass immigration that has led to an increase in the cultural diversity of its people. Some academics have argued that since the 1970s a policy of multiculturalism
have played an important role in the relative peacefulness of Australian society.
in 1996 and lost her seat in 1998. In her maiden speech to Parliament, Hanson said that "a multicultural country can never be a strong country", complained that Australia was in danger of being "swamped by Asians", and that these immigrants "have their own culture and religion, form ghettos and do not assimilate". She was widely accused of racism.
She helped form the One Nation Party
, which between 1998-2002 won a number of lower House seats in State Parliamentary elections, in Queensland, New South Wales
, and Western Australia
. One Nation currently holds no seats in any Parliament in Australia.
In 2006, as an ex politician, Pauline Hanson again achieved notoriety by asserting that Africans bring disease into Australia.
were a series of racially
motivated mob confrontations which originated in and around Cronulla
, a beachfront suburb of Sydney
, New South Wales
, Australia. Soon after the riot, ethnically motivated violent incidents occurred in several other Sydney suburbs.
On Sunday, 11 December 2005, approximately 5000 people gathered to protest against alleged incidents of assaults and intimidatory behaviour by groups of Middle East
ern looking youths from the suburbs of South Western Sydney
. The crowd initially assembled without incident, but violence broke out after a large segment of the mostly white
crowd chased a man of Middle East
ern appearance into a hotel
and two other youths of Middle Eastern appearance were assaulted on a train.
The following nights saw several retaliatory violent assaults in the communities near Cronulla and Maroubra, large gatherings of protesters around south western Sydney, and an unprecedented police lock-down of Sydney beaches
and surrounding areas, between Wollongong
and Newcastle
.
The committee expressed concern about the abolishment of ATSIC; proposed reforms to HREOC that may limit its independence; the practical barriers Indigenous peoples face in succeeding in claims for native title; a lack of legislation criminalising serious acts or incitement of racial hatred in the Commonwealth, the State of Tasmania
and the Northern Territory
; and the inequities between Indigenous peoples and others in the areas of employment, housing, longevity, education and income.
On 4 June 2009, China expressed concern over the matter - Chinese are the largest foreign student population in Australia with approximately 130,000 students. In light of this event, the Australian Government started a Helpline for Indian students to report such incidents. Australian High Commissioner to India John McCarthy said that there may have been an element of racism involved in some of the assaults reported upon Indians, but that they were mainly criminal in nature. The United Nations
High Commissioner for Human Rights, Navi Pillay, termed these attacks "disturbing" and has called for Australia to investigate the matters further. In the aftermath of these attacks, other investigations have uncovered racist elements in the Victorian police force.
, to prescribe where migrants to Australia were accepted from. This in part became the basis for the White Australia Policy
. This policy also stemmed from resentment of Chinese immigrants that had developed on the Australian gold fields from the 1850s. Fear of military invasion by Japan, the threat to the standard of living presented by the cheap but efficient Asian labourers, and white racism were the principal factors behind the White Australia movement. In 1901 the Immigration Restriction Act of Australia effectively ended all non-European immigration by providing for entrance examinations in European languages. Supplementary legislation in 1901 provided for the deportation by 1906 of the country’s Kanakas.
The Immigration Restriction Act was progressively dismantled post WWII until it was rescinded in 1973. The Racial Discrimination Act
was introduced in 1975.
The following Australian Federal and State legislation relates to racism and discrimination:
Indigenous Australians
At the time of first EuropeEurope
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an contact, it has been estimated the absolute minimum pre-1788 population was 315,000, while recent archaeological finds suggest that a population of 750,000 could have been sustained.
With the establishment of European settlement and their subsequent expansion, the indigenous populations were progressively forced into neighbouring territories. Violent conflict between Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. The Aboriginal Indigenous Australians migrated from the Indian continent around 75,000 to 100,000 years ago....
and European settlers described as the Australian frontier wars
Australian frontier wars
The Australian frontier wars were a series of conflicts fought between Indigenous Australians and European settlers. The first fighting took place in May 1788 and the last clashes occurred in the early 1930s. Indigenous fatalities from the fighting have been estimated as at least 20,000 and...
arose out this expansion, by the mid-late 19th century, populations were forcibly relocated to land reserves and missions. The nature of many of these land reserves and missions enabled disease to spread quickly and many were closed as resident numbers dropped, with the remaining residents being moved to other land reserves and missions into the 20th century.
Stolen Generations
The Stolen Generations is a term used to describe children of Australian AboriginalAustralian Aborigines
Australian Aborigines , also called Aboriginal Australians, from the latin ab originem , are people who are indigenous to most of the Australian continentthat is, to mainland Australia and the island of Tasmania...
and Torres Strait Islander descent who were removed from their families by Australian Federal and State agencies and church missions
Mission (Christian)
Christian missionary activities often involve sending individuals and groups , to foreign countries and to places in their own homeland. This has frequently involved not only evangelization , but also humanitarian work, especially among the poor and disadvantaged...
, under acts
Act of Parliament
An Act of Parliament is a statute enacted as primary legislation by a national or sub-national parliament. In the Republic of Ireland the term Act of the Oireachtas is used, and in the United States the term Act of Congress is used.In Commonwealth countries, the term is used both in a narrow...
of parliament. The removals occurred in the period between approximately 1869 and 1969, although in some places children were still being taken in the 1970s.
Historians such as Henry Reynolds
Henry Reynolds (historian)
Henry Reynolds is an eminent Australian historian whose primary work has focused on the frontier conflict between European settlement of Australia and indigenous Australians.-Education and career:...
have argued that this constitutes genocide.
In April 2000, the Aboriginal Affairs Minister John Herron
John Herron (Australian politician)
Dr. John Joseph Herron , Australian politician, ambassador and surgeon, was a Liberal member of the Australian Senate from 1 July 1990 to 5 September 2002, representing Queensland. From 2002 to 2006 he was the Australian Ambassador to Ireland and the Holy See.Dr...
, presented a report in the Australian Parliament that questioned whether there had been a "Stolen Generation", arguing that only 10% of Aboriginal children had been removed, and they did not constitute an entire "generation". The report received media attention and there were protests.
On 13 February 2008 Prime Minister Kevin Rudd presented an apology for the "Stolen Generation" as a motion
Motion (parliamentary procedure)
In parliamentary procedure, a motion is a formal proposal by a member of a deliberative assembly that the assembly take certain action. In a parliament, this is also called a parliamentary motion and includes legislative motions, budgetary motions, supplementary budgetary motions, and petitionary...
in Parliament.
Native Title
Native titleNative title
Native title is the Australian version of the common law doctrine of aboriginal title.Native title is "the recognition by Australian law that some Indigenous people have rights and interests to their land that come from their traditional laws and customs"...
is a concept in the law of Australia
Law of Australia
The law of Australia consists of the Australian common law , federal laws enacted by the Parliament of Australia, and laws enacted by the Parliaments of the Australian states and territories...
that recognises in certain cases there was and is a continued beneficial legal interest in land held by local indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. The Aboriginal Indigenous Australians migrated from the Indian continent around 75,000 to 100,000 years ago....
which survived the acquisition of title to the land by the Crown at the time that the Crown acquired sovereignty of Australia.
Early Asian Immigration
The Australian colonies had passed restrictive legislation as early as the 1860s, directed specifically at Chinese immigrants. Objections to the Chinese originally arose because of their large numbers, their religious beliefs and the view that they habitually engaged in gambling and smoking opium. It was also felt they would lower living standards, threaten democracy and that their numbers could expand into a "yellow tide". Later, a popular cry was raised against increasing numbers of Japanese (following Japan’s victory over China in the Sino-Japanese WarFirst Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War was fought between Qing Dynasty China and Meiji Japan, primarily over control of Korea...
), South Asians and Kanakas (South Pacific islanders). Popular support for White Australia, always strong, was bolstered at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 when the Australian delegation led the fight to defeat a Japanese-sponsored racial-equality amendment to the League of Nations Covenant.
Contemporary Australia
Public planning to counter cultural racismEthnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to believe that one's ethnic or cultural group is centrally important, and that all other groups are measured in relation to one's own. The ethnocentric individual will judge other groups relative to his or her own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with...
was ahead of its time in Western Sydney
Western Sydney
Western Sydney is a major region of Sydney, Australia. It has a number of different definitions but one consistently used is the region composed of the 11 councils which until recently were all members of the Western Sydney Regional Organisation of Councils:* Auburn Council* Bankstown City Council*...
, a suburban region with a long history of industrial production and migrant settlement. Many of its attempts to build an inclusive "cultural foundation" have been picked up by state governments, including council-funded social clubs for seniors, the provision of community services in major community languages, and the securing of places of worship through rezoning. All of these initiatives are aimed at public involvement rather than antiracist "integrating" strategies.
Institutional racism
Institutional racism
Institutional racism describes any kind of system of inequality based on race. It can occur in institutions such as public government bodies, private business corporations , and universities . The term was coined by Black Power activist Stokely Carmichael in the late 1960s...
is also seen in Australia within institutions, corporations, universities, etc. Government institutions are often cited racist with Indigenous people Racial abuse and vilification is commonplace in Australian sport, according to a new report by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission
The Australian Human Rights Commission is a national human rights institution, a statutory body funded by, but operating independently of, the Australian Government. It has the responsibility for investigating alleged infringements under Australia’s anti-discrimination legislation...
(HREOC).The report, What's the Score? A survey of cultural diversity and racism in Australian sport, says Aboriginal and other ethnic groups are under-represented in Australian sport, and suggests they are turned off organised sport because they fear racial vilification
Racial vilification
Racial vilification is the term in the legislation of Australia that refers to a public act that encourages or incites others to hate people because of their race, nationality, country of origin, colour or ethnic origin...
.
The inequalities suffered by Aborigines have long been widely documented by historians and reporters such as the left-wing journalist John Pilger
John Pilger
John Richard Pilger is an Australian journalist and documentary maker, based in London. He has twice won Britain's Journalist of the Year Award, and his documentaries have received academy awards in Britain and the US....
. As noted by Professor Colin Tatz
Colin Tatz
Colin Tatz, a Natal University and Australian National University graduate, has been Professor of Politics at the University of New England, Armidale, and at Macquarie University, Sydney. He is the director of the Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies at the Shalom Institute,...
in an interview with Pilger, in relation to an IOC representative who was seemingly unaware of Aboriginal socio-economic conditions when sent to Australia to see whether or not it was a “fit and proper country” for hosting the Olympics:
“On the salt pan at Lombadina, Aborigines play with two saplings stuck in the ground. If he had inspected these conditions, he would have been looking at third- and fourth-world sporting facilities. He would have seen Aborigines kicking a piece of leather stuffed with paper because they don’t possess a single football or have access to the kind of sports facilities that every white Australian takes for granted, even in poor working-class suburbs where there is a municipal pool, a municipal ground, a cricket pitch or a tennis court or a park of some sort – these things are totally absent in 95 per cent of Aboriginal communitities.”
Since the end of World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, Australia has had a programme of mass immigration that has led to an increase in the cultural diversity of its people. Some academics have argued that since the 1970s a policy of multiculturalism
Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is the appreciation, acceptance or promotion of multiple cultures, applied to the demographic make-up of a specific place, usually at the organizational level, e.g...
have played an important role in the relative peacefulness of Australian society.
Pauline Hanson and One Nation
Pauline Hanson was elected to the Australian Federal ParliamentParliament of Australia
The Parliament of Australia, also known as the Commonwealth Parliament or Federal Parliament, is the legislative branch of the government of Australia. It is bicameral, largely modelled in the Westminster tradition, but with some influences from the United States Congress...
in 1996 and lost her seat in 1998. In her maiden speech to Parliament, Hanson said that "a multicultural country can never be a strong country", complained that Australia was in danger of being "swamped by Asians", and that these immigrants "have their own culture and religion, form ghettos and do not assimilate". She was widely accused of racism.
She helped form the One Nation Party
One Nation Party
One Nation is a far-right and nationalist political party in Australia. It gained 22% of the vote translating to 11 of 89 seats in Queensland's unicameral legislative assembly at the 1998 state election and made major inroads into the vote of the existing parties...
, which between 1998-2002 won a number of lower House seats in State Parliamentary elections, in Queensland, New South Wales
New South Wales state election, 1999
Elections to the 52nd Parliament of New South Wales were held on Saturday, 27 March 1999. All seats in the Legislative Assembly and half the seats in the Legislative Council were up for election...
, and Western Australia
Western Australian state election, 2001
Elections were held in the state of Western Australia on 10 February 2001 to elect all 57 members to the Legislative Assembly and all 34 members to the Legislative Council...
. One Nation currently holds no seats in any Parliament in Australia.
In 2006, as an ex politician, Pauline Hanson again achieved notoriety by asserting that Africans bring disease into Australia.
Cronulla riots
The Cronulla riots of 20052005 Cronulla riots
The 2005 Cronulla riots were a series of sectarian clashes and mob violence originating in Cronulla, New South Wales and spreading, over the next few nights, to additional Sydney suburbs....
were a series of racially
Racism
Racism is the belief that inherent different traits in human racial groups justify discrimination. In the modern English language, the term "racism" is used predominantly as a pejorative epithet. It is applied especially to the practice or advocacy of racial discrimination of a pernicious nature...
motivated mob confrontations which originated in and around Cronulla
Cronulla, New South Wales
Cronulla is a beachside suburb, in southern Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Cronulla is located 26 kilometres south of the Sydney central business district, in the local government area of Sutherland Shire....
, a beachfront suburb of Sydney
Sydney
Sydney is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people...
, New South Wales
New South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
, Australia. Soon after the riot, ethnically motivated violent incidents occurred in several other Sydney suburbs.
On Sunday, 11 December 2005, approximately 5000 people gathered to protest against alleged incidents of assaults and intimidatory behaviour by groups of Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
ern looking youths from the suburbs of South Western Sydney
South-western Sydney
South-western Sydney is a general term which is used to describe the metropolitan area in south-west Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It is part of the Greater Western Sydney area....
. The crowd initially assembled without incident, but violence broke out after a large segment of the mostly white
White people
White people is a term which usually refers to human beings characterized, at least in part, by the light pigmentation of their skin...
crowd chased a man of Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
ern appearance into a hotel
Public house
A public house, informally known as a pub, is a drinking establishment fundamental to the culture of Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. There are approximately 53,500 public houses in the United Kingdom. This number has been declining every year, so that nearly half of the smaller...
and two other youths of Middle Eastern appearance were assaulted on a train.
The following nights saw several retaliatory violent assaults in the communities near Cronulla and Maroubra, large gatherings of protesters around south western Sydney, and an unprecedented police lock-down of Sydney beaches
Beaches in Sydney
Sydney's Beaches are located along the city's Pacific Ocean coastline and also its harbours, bays and rivers. Sydney is renowned for its beaches which, with its warm climate, attract people almost all year round....
and surrounding areas, between Wollongong
Wollongong, New South Wales
Wollongong is a seaside city located in the Illawarra region of New South Wales, Australia. It lies on the narrow coastal strip between the Illawarra Escarpment and the Pacific Ocean, 82 kilometres south of Sydney...
and Newcastle
Newcastle, New South Wales
The Newcastle metropolitan area is the second most populated area in the Australian state of New South Wales and includes most of the Newcastle and Lake Macquarie Local Government Areas...
.
UN report
The UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination in its report SMH released in 2005 was complimentary on improvements in race-related issues since its previous report five years prior, namely:- the criminalising of acts and incitement of racial hatred in most Australian States and Territories
- progress in the economic, social and cultural rights by indigenous peoples
- programmes and practices among the police and the judiciary, aimed at reducing the number of indigenous juveniles entering the criminal justice system
- the adoption of a Charter of Public Service in a Culturally Diverse Society to ensure that government services are provided in a way that is sensitive to the language and cultural needs of all Australians
- and the numerous human rights education programmes developed by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC).
The committee expressed concern about the abolishment of ATSIC; proposed reforms to HREOC that may limit its independence; the practical barriers Indigenous peoples face in succeeding in claims for native title; a lack of legislation criminalising serious acts or incitement of racial hatred in the Commonwealth, the State of Tasmania
Tasmania
Tasmania is an Australian island and state. It is south of the continent, separated by Bass Strait. The state includes the island of Tasmania—the 26th largest island in the world—and the surrounding islands. The state has a population of 507,626 , of whom almost half reside in the greater Hobart...
and the Northern Territory
Northern Territory
The Northern Territory is a federal territory of Australia, occupying much of the centre of the mainland continent, as well as the central northern regions...
; and the inequities between Indigenous peoples and others in the areas of employment, housing, longevity, education and income.
Assaults against Indian students
On 30 May 2009, Indian students protested against what they claimed were racist attacks, blocking streets in central Melbourne. Thousands of students gathered outside the Royal Melbourne Hospital where one of the victims was admitted. The protest, however, was called off early on the next day morning after the protesters accused police of "ramrodding" them to break up their sit-in.On 4 June 2009, China expressed concern over the matter - Chinese are the largest foreign student population in Australia with approximately 130,000 students. In light of this event, the Australian Government started a Helpline for Indian students to report such incidents. Australian High Commissioner to India John McCarthy said that there may have been an element of racism involved in some of the assaults reported upon Indians, but that they were mainly criminal in nature. The United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
High Commissioner for Human Rights, Navi Pillay, termed these attacks "disturbing" and has called for Australia to investigate the matters further. In the aftermath of these attacks, other investigations have uncovered racist elements in the Victorian police force.
Legislation relating to racism
One of the first Acts after the federation of Australia in 1901 was the Immigration Restriction Act 1901Immigration Restriction Act 1901
The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 was an Act of the Parliament of Australia which limited immigration to Australia and formed the basis of the White Australia policy. It also provided for illegal immigrants to be deported. It granted immigration officers a wide degree of discretion to prevent...
, to prescribe where migrants to Australia were accepted from. This in part became the basis for the White Australia Policy
White Australia policy
The White Australia policy comprises various historical policies that intentionally restricted "non-white" immigration to Australia. From origins at Federation in 1901, the polices were progressively dismantled between 1949-1973....
. This policy also stemmed from resentment of Chinese immigrants that had developed on the Australian gold fields from the 1850s. Fear of military invasion by Japan, the threat to the standard of living presented by the cheap but efficient Asian labourers, and white racism were the principal factors behind the White Australia movement. In 1901 the Immigration Restriction Act of Australia effectively ended all non-European immigration by providing for entrance examinations in European languages. Supplementary legislation in 1901 provided for the deportation by 1906 of the country’s Kanakas.
The Immigration Restriction Act was progressively dismantled post WWII until it was rescinded in 1973. The Racial Discrimination Act
Racial Discrimination Act 1975
The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 is a statute passed by the Australian Parliament during the Prime Ministership of Labor Gough Whitlam....
was introduced in 1975.
The following Australian Federal and State legislation relates to racism and discrimination:
- Commonwealth Racial Discrimination Act 1975Racial Discrimination Act 1975The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 is a statute passed by the Australian Parliament during the Prime Ministership of Labor Gough Whitlam....
- Commonwealth Racial Hatred Act (1995)
- Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act (1986)
- New South WalesNew South WalesNew South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
: Anti-Discrimination Act (1977) - South AustraliaSouth AustraliaSouth Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country. It covers some of the most arid parts of the continent; with a total land area of , it is the fourth largest of Australia's six states and two territories.South Australia shares borders with all of the mainland...
: Equal Opportunity Act (1984) and Racial Vilification Act (1996) - Western AustraliaWestern AustraliaWestern Australia is a state of Australia, occupying the entire western third of the Australian continent. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Great Australian Bight and Indian Ocean to the south, the Northern Territory to the north-east and South Australia to the south-east...
: Equal Opportunity Act (1984) and Criminal Code - Australian Capital TerritoryAustralian Capital TerritoryThe Australian Capital Territory, often abbreviated ACT, is the capital territory of the Commonwealth of Australia and is the smallest self-governing internal territory...
: Discrimination Act (1991) - QueenslandQueenslandQueensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean...
: Anti-Discrimination Act (1991) - Northern TerritoryNorthern TerritoryThe Northern Territory is a federal territory of Australia, occupying much of the centre of the mainland continent, as well as the central northern regions...
: Anti-Discrimination Act (1992) - VictoriaVictoria (Australia)Victoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically the smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania on Boundary Islet to the north, west and south respectively....
: Equal Opportunity Act (1995) and Racial and Religious Tolerance Act 2001Racial and Religious Tolerance Act 2001The Racial and Religious Tolerance Act 2001 was implemented by the Steve Bracks' Labor government in the state of Victoria, Australia. It was effective from 1 January 2002.-The Act:The explicit purposes of the Act are:... - TasmaniaTasmaniaTasmania is an Australian island and state. It is south of the continent, separated by Bass Strait. The state includes the island of Tasmania—the 26th largest island in the world—and the surrounding islands. The state has a population of 507,626 , of whom almost half reside in the greater Hobart...
: Anti-Discrimination Act (1998)
See also
- List of massacres of Indigenous Australians
- Racism by countryRacism by countryThe article describes the state of race relations and racism in a number of countries. Racism of various forms is found in every country on Earth. Racism is widely condemned throughout the world, with 170 states signatories of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial...
- Racial Violence In AustraliaRacial violence in AustraliaRacial violence in Australia is evident through various past and more recent events. Hate crimes and racial violence are not a new concept...
Further reading
- Justin Healey:Racism in Australia,Published by Spinney Press, 2003 ISBN 1-876811-89-7 http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/717581
- Racism in Australia: findings of a survey on racist attitudes and experiences of racism, University of HawaiiUniversity of HawaiiThe University of Hawaii System, formally the University of Hawaii and popularly known as UH, is a public, co-educational college and university system that confers associate, bachelor, master, and doctoral degrees through three university campuses, seven community college campuses, an employment...
- Mathias Royce:The Rise and Propagation of Political Right-Wing Extremism: The Identification and Assessment of Common Sovereign Economic and Socio-Demographic Determinants, SMC - Swiss Management Center, Working Paper Series, 5 August 2010, Available at SSRN http://ssrn.com/abstract=1701742
External links
- Australia Says Sorry TIMETimeTime is a part of the measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change such as the motions of objects....
. - CERD concluding observation on Australia, 2010
- Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on Contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance on his visit to Australia, 2002