Historical Behaviour Studies
Encyclopedia
Historical behaviour studies (Historische Verhaltensforschung) is a field of research in cultural history and cultural anthropology and a particular methodological approach to the study of human behaviour.
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as a department of the University of Stuttgart
. The Department of Historical Behaviour Studies was part of the newly established Institute of Social Research, side by side with departments of social planning and social economy
. Later on, historians like Johannes Burkhardt :de:Johannes Burkhardt, Andreas Kalckhoff
, Harald Kleinschmidt, Volker Saftien and Michael Walter joined the department. Others like Wolfgang Christian Schneider, Andreas Gestrich :de:Andreas Gestrich, Mathias Beer und Katja Erdmann-Rajski worked in connection with the department and used similar methods of research.
The research of this Stuttgart school of studies in human behaviour
was to a certain extent parallel to the History of Mentalities (mentalité history→Annales School
) from France, to the Cultural Sociology (Kultursoziologie :de:Kultursoziologie) from Germany and Denmark, and to the Historical Anthropology (Historische Anthropologie :de:Historische Anthropologie) from Germany which arose in the 1990s. Referring to Ruth Benedict
, Norbert Elias
and Michel Foucault
, the patterns of human behaviour were called “configuration
s” (→Configurational analysis (Konfigurationsanalyse)
).
1550–1650, of the Industrial Revolution
around 1770–1820, and in cultural change around 1900–1930. Other changes were studied for the Middle-Ages. These historical case studies could lead to questions concerning the significance and change of behaviour at present and in the future.
A particular characteristic of the Stuttgart studies of historical behaviour was the comparative turn towards non-Western societies like Indonesia
, Japan
, and China
.
While the Stuttgart school generally focused on “describing” (→description
) and “understanding
” different forms and changes of historical behaviour, the “explanation
” of cultural difference and change was discussed diversely. Eichberg emphasized the irreducible other
ness (alterity
) of foreign behavior; “extraneous” patterns withdraw from the explanations of the external observer and develop, also in modernity, on ways quite different from Western standard. Nitschke :de:August Nitschke tried to find explanations for the historical dynamics of different cultures by models of energy
and time
expectation; this met with observations of self-organization
(→Synergetics (Haken)) as reported in physics
and biology
. Common for the Stuttgart school was a skeptical distance towards the traditional explanation of historical change by ideologies, individual intention
s, general social structures or one global process of sociocultural evolution
.
, and of peace
and war
, to the study of paradigm
changes in natural sciences, to the history of art
and of the public sphere
. They had a special impact on the international study of body culture (physical culture
). The Danish school of body culture studies developed the analysis of configuration
s – social space, social time, inter-human relations, atmospheres and emotions as well as the objectivation of movement
– towards the study of sport
and other movement cultures (p. e. musical gesture) in diverse societies and social formations.
Eichberg, Henning (1973): Der Weg des Sports in die industrielle Zivilisation. Baden-Baden: Nomos.
(et al.): Massenspiele. NS-Thingspiel, Arbeiterweihespiel und olympisches Zeremoniell. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog
(et al.): Die Veränderung des Sports ist gesellschaftlich. Die historische Verhaltensforschung in der Diskussion. Münster: Lit
Erdmann-Rajski, Katja (2000): Gret Palucca: Tanz und Zeiterfahrung in Deutschland im 20. Jahrhundert: Weimarer Republik, Nationalsozialismus, Deutsche Demokratische Republik. Hildesheim, Zürich, New York: Olms.
Gestrich, Andreas (1994): Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
Kalckhoff, Andreas (1982): "Historische Verhaltensforschung: Ethnologie unserer Vergangenheit. Die Konfiguration eines Aufstandes im 10. Jahrhundert", in Gehlen, Rolf & Wolf, Bernd (eds.): Werner Müller zu seinem 75.Geburtstag, Unter dem Pflaster liegt der Strand 11. Berlin: Karin Kramer.
Kintzinger, Martin et al. (1991) (eds.): Das Andere Wahrnehmen. Beiträge zur europäischen Geschichte. August Nitschke zum 65. Geburtstag gewidmet. Cologne: Böhlau.
Kleinschmidt, Harald (1989): Tyrocinium Militare. Militärische Körperhaltungen und –bewegungen zwischen dem 14. und dem 18. Jahrhundert. Stuttgart: Autorenverlag
Nitschke, August (1972): Die Bedrohung. Ansatz einer historischen Verhaltensforschung. Stuttgart: Klett
(ed.): Verhaltenswandel in der industriellen Revolution. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
(with Hans Wieland eds.): Die Faszination und Wirkung außereuropäischer Tanz- und Sportformen. Ahrensburg: Czwalina.
(ed.): Jahrhundertwende. Der Aufbruch in die Moderne, 1880–1930. Reinbek: Rowohlt
(co-ed.): Überraschendes Lachen, gefordertes Weinen. Gefühle und Prozesse, Kulturen und Epochen im Vergleich. Vienna: Böhlau.
Saftien, Volker (1994): Ars saltandi. Der europäische Gesellschaftstanz im Zeitalter der Renaissance und des Barock. Hildesheim, New York: Olms.
Schneider, Wolfgang Christian (1988): Ruhm, Heilsgeschehen, Dialektik. Drei kognitive Ordnungen in Geschichtsschreibung und Buchmalerei der Ottonenzeit. Hildesheim, New York: Olms.
Walter, Michael (1994): Grundlagen der Musik des Mittelalters. Schrift – Zeit – Raum. Stuttgart: Metzler.
About the influence of Historical Behaviour Studies:
Lorenz, Maren (2000): Leibhaftige Vergangenheit. Einführung in die Körpergeschichte. Tübingen: Diskord.
Mallinckrodt, Rebekka (2008): Bewegtes Leben. Körpertechniken in der Frühen Neuzeit. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
----
Method and object of research
Historical behaviour studies are a way of cultural sociology under the particular aspect of historical change. Its focal points were:- to describe patterns of human bodily practice as rites and ceremonies, music and dance, sports and exercises, play and game, beyond ideas and weltanschauung :de:Weltanschauung;
- to identify analogies between patterns of bodily behaviour (gestures and body movement) and patterns of thinking (“Denkordnungen”);
- to compare forms of behaviour across different times and cultures by patterns and configurationConfigurationThe term configuration has several meanings.In computing it may refer to:* Computer configuration or system configuration* Configure is the output of Autotools and used to detect system configuration...
s rather than by meaning;
- to compare patterns of behaviour, of thinking and of mentalities (mindsets) in different fields of society, as in economic behaviour, military behaviour, concepts of natural sciences, proceedings and atmospheres in literary works, and social movements;
- to understand epochal changes of behaviour (→PeriodizationPeriodizationPeriodization is the attempt to categorize or divide time into named blocks. The result is a descriptive abstraction that provides a useful handle on periods of time with relatively stable characteristics...
);
- to bridge the gap between history, sociologySociologySociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
and anthropologyAnthropologyAnthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...
.
Institute of Social Research – the Stuttgart school
The Historical Behaviour Studies (Historische Verhaltensforschung) were established in 1971 by August Nitschke :de:August Nitschke and Henning EichbergHenning Eichberg
Henning Eichberg Henning Eichberg Henning Eichberg (born December 1, 1942 in Schweidnitz, Silesia is a German sociologist and historian, teaching at the University of Southern Denmark in Odense...
as a department of the University of Stuttgart
University of Stuttgart
The University of Stuttgart is a university located in Stuttgart, Germany. It was founded in 1829 and is organized in 10 faculties....
. The Department of Historical Behaviour Studies was part of the newly established Institute of Social Research, side by side with departments of social planning and social economy
Social economy
Social economy refers to a third sector in economies between the private sector and business or, the public sector and government. It includes organisations such as cooperatives, non-governmental organisations and charities....
. Later on, historians like Johannes Burkhardt :de:Johannes Burkhardt, Andreas Kalckhoff
Andreas Kalckhoff
Andreas Kalckhoff is a German historian and writer.- Biography :Kalckhoff grew up in Munich, Bavaria, where he studied Bavarian History, medieval history and politics. 1976 he was conferred a Ph.D...
, Harald Kleinschmidt, Volker Saftien and Michael Walter joined the department. Others like Wolfgang Christian Schneider, Andreas Gestrich :de:Andreas Gestrich, Mathias Beer und Katja Erdmann-Rajski worked in connection with the department and used similar methods of research.
The research of this Stuttgart school of studies in human behaviour
Human Behaviour
"Human Behaviour" is Icelandic singer Björk's first solo single, taken from the album Debut. It contains a sample of "Go Down Dying" by Antonio Carlos Jobim. The lyrics reflect on human nature and emotion from a non-human animal's point of view. The song is the first part of a series of songs that...
was to a certain extent parallel to the History of Mentalities (mentalité history→Annales School
Annales School
The Annales School is a group of historians associated with a style of historiography developed by French historians in the 20th century. It is named after its scholarly journal Annales d'histoire économique et sociale, which remains the main source of scholarship, along with many books and...
) from France, to the Cultural Sociology (Kultursoziologie :de:Kultursoziologie) from Germany and Denmark, and to the Historical Anthropology (Historische Anthropologie :de:Historische Anthropologie) from Germany which arose in the 1990s. Referring to Ruth Benedict
Ruth Benedict
Ruth Benedict was an American anthropologist, cultural relativist, and folklorist....
, Norbert Elias
Norbert Elias
Norbert Elias was a German sociologist of Jewish descent, who later became a British citizen.-Biography:...
and Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault , born Paul-Michel Foucault , was a French philosopher, social theorist and historian of ideas...
, the patterns of human behaviour were called “configuration
Configuration
The term configuration has several meanings.In computing it may refer to:* Computer configuration or system configuration* Configure is the output of Autotools and used to detect system configuration...
s” (→Configurational analysis (Konfigurationsanalyse)
Configurational analysis (Konfigurationsanalyse)
In cultural and social studies, configurations are patterns of behaviour, movement and thinking, which research observes when analysing different cultures and/ or historical changes. The term “configurations” is mostly used by comparative anthropological studies and by cultural history...
).
Analyzing historical change and cultural difference
The Stuttgart school of Historical Behaviour Studies directed special attention towards fundamental and abrupt changes of behavior and society, as they could be observed in the context of the RenaissanceRenaissance
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historical era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not...
1550–1650, of the Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times...
around 1770–1820, and in cultural change around 1900–1930. Other changes were studied for the Middle-Ages. These historical case studies could lead to questions concerning the significance and change of behaviour at present and in the future.
A particular characteristic of the Stuttgart studies of historical behaviour was the comparative turn towards non-Western societies like Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
, Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
, and China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
.
While the Stuttgart school generally focused on “describing” (→description
Description
Description is one of four rhetorical modes , along with exposition, argumentation, and narration. Each of the rhetorical modes is present in a variety of forms and each has its own purpose and conventions....
) and “understanding
Understanding
Understanding is a psychological process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a person, situation, or message whereby one is able to think about it and use concepts to deal adequately with that object....
” different forms and changes of historical behaviour, the “explanation
Explanation
An explanation is a set of statements constructed to describe a set of facts which clarifies the causes, context, and consequencesof those facts....
” of cultural difference and change was discussed diversely. Eichberg emphasized the irreducible other
Other
The Other or Constitutive Other is a key concept in continental philosophy; it opposes the Same. The Other refers, or attempts to refer, to that which is Other than the initial concept being considered...
ness (alterity
Alterity
Alterity is a philosophical term meaning "otherness", strictly being in the sense of the other of two . In the phenomenological tradition it is usually understood as the entity in contrast to which an identity is constructed, and it implies the ability to distinguish between self and not-self, and...
) of foreign behavior; “extraneous” patterns withdraw from the explanations of the external observer and develop, also in modernity, on ways quite different from Western standard. Nitschke :de:August Nitschke tried to find explanations for the historical dynamics of different cultures by models of energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
and time
Time
Time is a part of the measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change such as the motions of objects....
expectation; this met with observations of self-organization
Self-organization
Self-organization is the process where a structure or pattern appears in a system without a central authority or external element imposing it through planning...
(→Synergetics (Haken)) as reported in physics
Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
and biology
Biology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
. Common for the Stuttgart school was a skeptical distance towards the traditional explanation of historical change by ideologies, individual intention
Intention
Intention is an agent's specific purpose in performing an action or series of actions, the end or goal that is aimed at. Outcomes that are unanticipated or unforeseen are known as unintended consequences....
s, general social structures or one global process of sociocultural evolution
Sociocultural evolution
Sociocultural evolution is an umbrella term for theories of cultural evolution and social evolution, describing how cultures and societies have changed over time...
.
Influence on international research
The Historical Behaviour Studies contributed among others to the history of popular culturePopular culture
Popular culture is the totality of ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images and other phenomena that are deemed preferred per an informal consensus within the mainstream of a given culture, especially Western culture of the early to mid 20th century and the emerging global mainstream of the...
, and of peace
Peace
Peace is a state of harmony characterized by the lack of violent conflict. Commonly understood as the absence of hostility, peace also suggests the existence of healthy or newly healed interpersonal or international relationships, prosperity in matters of social or economic welfare, the...
and war
War
War is a state of organized, armed, and often prolonged conflict carried on between states, nations, or other parties typified by extreme aggression, social disruption, and usually high mortality. War should be understood as an actual, intentional and widespread armed conflict between political...
, to the study of paradigm
Paradigm
The word paradigm has been used in science to describe distinct concepts. It comes from Greek "παράδειγμα" , "pattern, example, sample" from the verb "παραδείκνυμι" , "exhibit, represent, expose" and that from "παρά" , "beside, beyond" + "δείκνυμι" , "to show, to point out".The original Greek...
changes in natural sciences, to the history of art
History of art
The History of art refers to visual art which may be defined as any activity or product made by humans in a visual form for aesthetical or communicative purposes, expressing ideas, emotions or, in general, a worldview...
and of the public sphere
Public sphere
The public sphere is an area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action...
. They had a special impact on the international study of body culture (physical culture
Physical culture
Physical culture is a term applied to health and strength training regimens, particularly those that originated during the 19th century. During the mid-late 20th century, the term "physical culture" became largely outmoded in most English-speaking countries, being replaced by terms such as...
). The Danish school of body culture studies developed the analysis of configuration
Configuration
The term configuration has several meanings.In computing it may refer to:* Computer configuration or system configuration* Configure is the output of Autotools and used to detect system configuration...
s – social space, social time, inter-human relations, atmospheres and emotions as well as the objectivation of movement
Movement
-In society and the arts:* Social movement, a coordinated group action focused on a political or social issue* Political movement, a coordinated group action focused on a political issue* Art movement, a tendency or style in art followed by a group of artists...
– towards the study of sport
Sport
A Sport is all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aim to use, maintain or improve physical fitness and provide entertainment to participants. Sport may be competitive, where a winner or winners can be identified by objective means, and may require a degree...
and other movement cultures (p. e. musical gesture) in diverse societies and social formations.
Literature
Beer, Mathias (1990): Eltern und Kinder des späten Mittelalters in ihren Briefen. Familienleben in der Stadt des Spätmittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit. Nürnberg: Stadtarchiv Nürnberg.Eichberg, Henning (1973): Der Weg des Sports in die industrielle Zivilisation. Baden-Baden: Nomos.
(et al.): Massenspiele. NS-Thingspiel, Arbeiterweihespiel und olympisches Zeremoniell. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog
- Leistung, Spannung Geschwindigkeit. Sport und Tanz im gesellschaftlichen Wandel des 18./ 19. Jahrhunderts. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta
- Sozialverhalten und Regionalentwicklungsplanung. Modernisierung in der indonesischen Relationsgesellschaft. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot
- Die historische Relativität der Sachen. Münster: Lit
(et al.): Die Veränderung des Sports ist gesellschaftlich. Die historische Verhaltensforschung in der Diskussion. Münster: Lit
- Body Cultures. London: Routledge
- Bodily Democracy. London: Routledge
Erdmann-Rajski, Katja (2000): Gret Palucca: Tanz und Zeiterfahrung in Deutschland im 20. Jahrhundert: Weimarer Republik, Nationalsozialismus, Deutsche Demokratische Republik. Hildesheim, Zürich, New York: Olms.
Gestrich, Andreas (1994): Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
- Vergesellschaftungen des Menschen. Einführung in die Historische Sozialisationsforschung. Tübingen: edition diskord.
Kalckhoff, Andreas (1982): "Historische Verhaltensforschung: Ethnologie unserer Vergangenheit. Die Konfiguration eines Aufstandes im 10. Jahrhundert", in Gehlen, Rolf & Wolf, Bernd (eds.): Werner Müller zu seinem 75.Geburtstag, Unter dem Pflaster liegt der Strand 11. Berlin: Karin Kramer.
- Karl der Große. Verhaltensstruktur eines Herrschers. Munich: Piper.
Kintzinger, Martin et al. (1991) (eds.): Das Andere Wahrnehmen. Beiträge zur europäischen Geschichte. August Nitschke zum 65. Geburtstag gewidmet. Cologne: Böhlau.
Kleinschmidt, Harald (1989): Tyrocinium Militare. Militärische Körperhaltungen und –bewegungen zwischen dem 14. und dem 18. Jahrhundert. Stuttgart: Autorenverlag
- People on the Move. Westport: Praeger.
- Perception and Action in Medieval Europe. Woodbridge: Boydell.
Nitschke, August (1972): Die Bedrohung. Ansatz einer historischen Verhaltensforschung. Stuttgart: Klett
- Kunst und Verhalten. Analoge Konfigurationen. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog.
(ed.): Verhaltenswandel in der industriellen Revolution. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
- Revolutionen in Naturwissenschaft und Gesellschaft. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog.
- Historische Verhaltensforschung. Stuttgart: Ulmer.
(with Hans Wieland eds.): Die Faszination und Wirkung außereuropäischer Tanz- und Sportformen. Ahrensburg: Czwalina.
- Junge Rebellen. Mittelalter, Neuzeit, Gegenwart: Kinder verändern die Welt. Munich: Kösel.
- Bewegungen in Mittelalter und Renaissance. Düsseldorf: Schwann.
- Körper in Bewegung. Stuttgart: Kreuz.
(ed.): Jahrhundertwende. Der Aufbruch in die Moderne, 1880–1930. Reinbek: Rowohlt
- Die Mutigen in einem System. Wechselwirkungen zwischen Mensch und Umwelt. Ein Vergleich der Kulturen. Cologne, Weimar, Vienna: Böhlau
- Die Zukunft in der Vergangenheit. Systeme in der historischen und biologischen Evolution. Munich, Zürich: Piper
- Zeitmuster in der Geschichte. Was interessiert junge Chinesen an Europas Mittelalter? Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe
(co-ed.): Überraschendes Lachen, gefordertes Weinen. Gefühle und Prozesse, Kulturen und Epochen im Vergleich. Vienna: Böhlau.
Saftien, Volker (1994): Ars saltandi. Der europäische Gesellschaftstanz im Zeitalter der Renaissance und des Barock. Hildesheim, New York: Olms.
Schneider, Wolfgang Christian (1988): Ruhm, Heilsgeschehen, Dialektik. Drei kognitive Ordnungen in Geschichtsschreibung und Buchmalerei der Ottonenzeit. Hildesheim, New York: Olms.
Walter, Michael (1994): Grundlagen der Musik des Mittelalters. Schrift – Zeit – Raum. Stuttgart: Metzler.
- Hitler in der Oper. Deutsches Musikleben 1919–1945. Stuttgart: Metzler
About the influence of Historical Behaviour Studies:
Lorenz, Maren (2000): Leibhaftige Vergangenheit. Einführung in die Körpergeschichte. Tübingen: Diskord.
Mallinckrodt, Rebekka (2008): Bewegtes Leben. Körpertechniken in der Frühen Neuzeit. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
See also
- Human behaviorHuman behaviorHuman behavior refers to the range of behaviors exhibited by humans and which are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics....
- Sociology of cultureSociology of cultureThe sociology of culture concerns culture—usually understood as sets of cognitive meanings—as it is manifested in society. For Georg Simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history".Cultural...
- AnthropologyAnthropologyAnthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...
, Cultural AnthropologyCultural anthropologyCultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans, collecting data about the impact of global economic and political processes on local cultural realities. Anthropologists use a variety of methods, including participant observation,...
, Social AnthropologySocial anthropologySocial Anthropology is one of the four or five branches of anthropology that studies how contemporary human beings behave in social groups. Practitioners of social anthropology investigate, often through long-term, intensive field studies , the social organization of a particular person: customs,...