Ethnic stereotypes in comics
Encyclopedia
Reflecting the changing political climate, the representation of racial and ethnic minorities in comic books have also evolved over time. This article is intended to document and discuss historical and contemporary racial and ethnic stereotypes in the medium of mainstream comics.
-oriented storylines and transitioned into the comic medium format. It began addressing important contemporary political issues. For example, some have suggested that the Wonder Woman
character and title evolved as a vehicle to communicate pro-American attitudes during World War II
. X-Men
creator, Stan Lee
has frequently cited the African-American Civil Rights Movement
as the inspiration for his mutant team of superheroes, and has translated many of the tensions of majority-minority race politics into the X-Men title.
Nonetheless, for many years, comic book characters noticeably lacked racial and ethnic diversity. Comics writer and artist Kevin Sutherland
said "...when you look at the shelves and see half the titles on sale are characters like Superman
, Batman
, Spider-Man
- dammit, these characters weren't even allowed to be Jewish like their creators, let alone be black." Recognizing the influence of comics on popular culture
, some members of ethnic and racial communities have focused their attention on stereotypes within comics, and have begun lobbying to change them. This is accomplished in many ways, frequently by either writing new character of color or "trans-racializing" existing characters from Whites to racial or ethnic minorities (e.g. the changing of Karate Kid
's race from White to Asian).
Given the recent popularity of injecting characters of color into popular comic titles, a new concern has arisen regarding possible tokenism
, and many writers advocate not just the inclusion of characters of color into predominantly White casts of characters, but that these minority characters defy the racial and ethnic stereotypes so prevalent in the history of comics, as well as maintaining the high standard of comic book writing. Daley Osiyemi, creator of Brodie's Law
and co-founder of Pulp Theatre Entertainment said, "...we don't just want black characters or superheroes in comics as mere tokens, they have to be strong characters in their own right and have strong stories built around them."
In 2007 the scholarly journal MELUS (publication of the Society for the Study of Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States) devoted an entire issue to the literary and sociological representations of race and ethnicity in comics. The issue was guest edited by Derek Parker Royal, and it included essays on older graphic narratives (such as Jackie Ormes's Torchy Brown and Miné Okubo's Citizen 13660), more recent graphic novels (Ho Che Anderson
's King, Ben Katchor
's The Jew of New York, and Mark Kalesniko's Mail Order Bride), as well as various comic book series (Dwayne McDuffie's Deathlok
, Adrian Tomine
's Optic Nerve, and Los Bros Hernandez's Love and Rockets
). Gilbert Hernandez
illustrated the cover, and the issue included an interview with him as well.
in the 1930s. He was Mandrake's sidekick: the circus strongman, who wore a Tarzan
-style costume, was drawn in the Sambo
-style of the time (see below) and was poor, and uneducated. Since the introduction of Lothar, Black characters have a received a variety of treatments in comics, and not all of them positive.
. These characters were also depicted as speaking accented English. In the early 20th century United States
, these kinds of representations were seen frequently in newspaper comic strips and political cartoons, as well as in later comic magazines, and were also present in early cartoons by Disney and Looney Tunes
. In comics, nameless Black bystanders (see right) and even some notable heroes and villains were developed in this style, including Ebony White
, sidekick of The Spirit
(see below) and Steamboat, valet of Billy Batson.
-artist
Will Eisner
is sometimes criticized for his depiction of Ebony White, the young African American
sidekick
of Eisner's 1940s and 1950s character The Spirit. Eisner later admitted to consciously stereotyping the character, but said he tried to do so with "responsibility", and argued that "at the time humor consisted in our society of bad English and physical difference in identity". The character developed beyond the stereotype as the series progressed, and Eisner also introduced black characters (such as the plain-speaking Detective Grey) who defied popular stereotypes.
In a 1966 New York Herald Tribune
feature by his former office manager-turned-journalist, Marilyn Mercer wrote, "Ebony never drew criticism from Negro groups (in fact, Eisner was commended by some for using him), perhaps because, although his speech pattern was early Minstrel Show
, he himself derived from another literary tradition: he was a combination of Tom Sawyer
and Penrod
, with a touch of Horatio Alger hero, and color didn't really come into it".
received much criticism for his first comics. Tintin in the Congo
, from 1930, presented the typical colonial view Belgians
had about the people in Belgian Congo
, including the missionary
bringing civilization to the uneducated blacks. According to one reviewer, "the Africans are portrayed as primitive, simple-minded folk". Hergé, 23 years old at the time, defended himself as being naïve instead of intentionally racist. Nevertheless, the album wasn't translated into English until very recently, due to those concerns.
, author of Comic Strips and Consumer Culture, 1890-1945, argues that the need for comic strips to appeal to diverse national audiences in the USA meant that the outright racial caricatures of minstrelsy did not translate to the comic strips with any commercial success. Instead artists and writers developed "de-raciate" Black stereotypes in the form of funny animal characters the first of which Felix the Cat owed his existence directly to the racialized humor of a strip named "Sambo and His Funny Noises." Other examples of such characters include Krazy Kat
, created by George Herriman
who was born creole but died white, and Mickey Mouse
.
-era movie protagonists, and seemed to be a direct response to the notable Black Nationalist movement. These (predominantly male) heroes were often martial artists, came from the ghetto
, and were politically motivated. They were frequently pitted against White villains, representing the Black struggle against 'The Man': a catch-all phrase popularized during the African-American Civil Rights Movement
to represent the White power structure. However, as much as the Blaxploitation era superheroes contrasted earlier racial caricatures of Blacks in comics, one attribute remained common: hypersexuality; many Blaxploitation heroes were still highly masculinized, reminiscent of the Mandingo stereotype, and were frequently seen sexually dominating White female characters. Examples of such Blaxploitation characters include Luke Cage
, Misty Knight
, Bronze Tiger
and Black Lightning
.
, for example, became a black and slightly inferior (in terms of scientific ability and combat experience) version of his white mentor.
", these characters were frequently of foreign nationality (usually Chinese
) and often possessed a stereotypically Asian appearance (for example, a long wispy moustache and yellow-tinted skin). They were often highly intelligent or in possession of a powerful, supernatural ability and generally occupied themselves with elaborate plans for world domination, although they were usually thwarted by the American heroes of their time. While usually serious threats, one somewhat humorous Yellow Peril villain was DC's Egg Fu
, a giant Communist egg with facial features and a prehensile moustache.
published a series of novels focusing on the wildly popular Chinese villain, Dr. Fu Manchu
. Attempting to capitalize on this success, DC Comics
and Marvel Comics
both published comic books featuring Chinese villains physically resembling Fu Manchu and possessing the same personality, sexual ambiguity, and ambitions for world domination. Because neither publisher possessed a license for the Fu Manchu character, these early Chinese comic book villains were either unnamed or had a different name than Fu Manchu. Examples include DC's Red Dragon and Marvel's Yellow Claw
and The Mandarin
.
In 1938, DC Comics obtained the license for Sax Rohmer's character, and subsequent titles featured Fu Manchu as a recurring villain http://www.njedge.net/~knapp/comic.htm. Marvel Comics obtained the rights for Fu Manchu in 1972, and he was notably introduced as the father of Marvel's Shang-Chi
, protagonist of the Master of Kung Fu title.
Although both DC and Marvel have since declined to renew their license for the Fu Manchu character, Fu Manchu has made brief appearances in modern comics, usually referred to merely as 'The Doctor' (as in Alan Moore
's League of Extraordinary Gentlemen).
, appearing short in stature, sporting bucked teeth and a queue
, and spoke pidgin
English. These characters often served as comedy relief or as a convenient hostage for the villain of the day. Examples of such characters include the controversial Chop-Chop (aka Wu Cheng) of DC's Blackhawk
team (see below) and Wing-How., sidekick of the Crimson Avenger
.
, Chuck Cuidera, and Bob Powell
for Quality Comics
during World War II
. Resembling other Chinese caricatures typical of the era, Chop-Chop was short with bright yellow skin, bucked teeth, and a queue
. His primary role seemed to be as the chef of the Blackhawk team. Strangely, Chop-Chop was also the only member of the Blackhawks who did not wear a Blackhawk uniform; instead, he wore traditional Chinese shirt and pants.
Many members of the Asian American
community found the character of Chop-Chop to be highly controversial and offensive. Addressing the disparity of Asian American characters in the comic industry and the stereotypical images of early characters, noted Asian American comics writer Larry Hama
said, "Many companies were still coloring Asians bright yellow... In the '40s and '50s, the character Chop Chop in the 'Blackhawks' had big buck teeth, a long pigtail and lots of cleavers. It wasn't until sometime in the '60s that he evolved into a short slim guy who was a jaundiced shade of orange."
The event to which Hama refers occurred in Blackhawk #197 (June 1964). That issue began the "New Blackhawks", an attempt to modernize the team that included new uniforms. Chop-Chop got a uniform and his own aircraft (he had nearly always ridden with Blackhawk or one of the other team members prior to this time). Chop-Chop was treated and portrayed as a full member of the team from this point on but certain stereotypical factors were still in play. Like most Asian comic book heroes, he was now a martial arts expert. This was emphasized even more when the Blackhawks tried being super-powered heroes in issues #228 (January 1967) to #241 (Jun-Jul 1968). In that run of stories, Chop-Chop was known as "Dr. Hands."
In the next revival of the Blackhawks (with issue #244, Jan-Feb 1976), Chop-Chop got a new name, Chopper, and was treated pretty much like all the other members of the team. He was no longer an ethnic caricature and the decades of his portrayal as one were simply ignored as if they had never happened. It took a third revival of the title in 1982 (Blackhawk #251) to finally address that issue. Writer Mark Evanier
and artist Dan Spiegle
avoided all the racial and ethnic stereotypes that had previously defined Chop-Chop’s character except one. They put him back in the coolie outfit that the character had worn for a large part of his existence. This was a deliberate move so they could examine why Chop-Chop was not treated like a full member of the team in a story titled "What’s the Matter with Chop-Chop?" (#265, December 1983). The story has the other Blackhawks examine their attitudes and feelings and, at the end, Wu Cheng gets respect and a uniform.
Howard Chaykin
's 1987 Blackhawk limited series explains the earlier stereotypical representations as a comic-book-within-a-comic-book and the Chop-Chop of that team expresses indignation toward them.
or the ways of the samurai
, and are frequently introduced as teachers of non-Asian protagonists. Examples include Marvel's Shang-Chi
, Colleen Wing
, Psylocke
although she is actually British in an Asian body, Silver Samurai
, DC's Katana
, Lady Shiva
, and Cassandra Cain
. Frequently, martial arts masters are associated with Asian religions, such as Buddhism
, and a common archetype is that of the elderly, wise monk
.
., and was later popularized in film by roles such as that of Anna May Wong
's title character in the film, Daughter of the Dragon
. In comics, examples of the dragon lady stereotype include Marvel's Fah Lo Suee (see below), the daughter of Fu Manchu
.
's series of pulp novels featuring Dr. Fu Manchu
. Fah Lo Suee's name meant "Sweet Perfume", and she was Fu Manchu's daughter. In Marvel Comics
, Fah Lo Suee was Shang-Chi
's sister, and a hypersexualized temptress with the power of hypnosis. Her loyalties lay only with her own ambitions, and she was willing to turn on anyone, including her own father, if it would benefit her. She eventually joined the Secret Intelligence Service
(MI6), a top-secret British intelligence agency, where she became a high-ranking official, although she did this only in further pursuit of power for herself.
, professor emeritus of mass communications at Southern Illinois University
has written extensively on the plight of Arabs in the American mass media. He wrote that due to ignorance, fear, and political beliefs, Arabs are rarely portrayed as anything but villain
s. Those few positive portrayals are often passive, neither taking the limelight away from the most often Caucasian
protagonists, nor overshadowing the active role of the evil Arabs in the book. Examples include Marvel's Fasaud
and the original Arabian Knight
.
captures an Arab who is attempting to drive American oil companies out by launching a terrorist campaign.
Sociopolitical impact of comics
Throughout history, comics have reflected the sociopolitical attitudes of their writers and readers. In America, early comics consisted primarily of short, humorous comic strips printed in newspapers. In the 1930s, comics evolved into longer, actionAction genre
The word action has more than one meaning in fiction. Action is one of the fiction-writing modes authors use to present fiction. The term is also used to describe an exiting event or circumstance.-Action as a fiction-writing mode:...
-oriented storylines and transitioned into the comic medium format. It began addressing important contemporary political issues. For example, some have suggested that the Wonder Woman
Wonder Woman
Wonder Woman is a DC Comics superheroine created by William Moulton Marston. She first appeared in All Star Comics #8 . The Wonder Woman title has been published by DC Comics almost continuously except for a brief hiatus in 1986....
character and title evolved as a vehicle to communicate pro-American attitudes during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. X-Men
X-Men
The X-Men are a superhero team in the . They were created by writer Stan Lee and artist Jack Kirby, and first appeared in The X-Men #1...
creator, Stan Lee
Stan Lee
Stan Lee is an American comic book writer, editor, actor, producer, publisher, television personality, and the former president and chairman of Marvel Comics....
has frequently cited the African-American Civil Rights Movement
African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)
The African-American Civil Rights Movement refers to the movements in the United States aimed at outlawing racial discrimination against African Americans and restoring voting rights to them. This article covers the phase of the movement between 1955 and 1968, particularly in the South...
as the inspiration for his mutant team of superheroes, and has translated many of the tensions of majority-minority race politics into the X-Men title.
Nonetheless, for many years, comic book characters noticeably lacked racial and ethnic diversity. Comics writer and artist Kevin Sutherland
Kevin Sutherland
Kevin John Sutherland is an American professional golfer.Sutherland was born in Sacramento, California and graduated from Christian Brothers High School. He attended Fresno State University and made the golf team as a walk-on freshman...
said "...when you look at the shelves and see half the titles on sale are characters like Superman
Superman
Superman is a fictional comic book superhero appearing in publications by DC Comics, widely considered to be an American cultural icon. Created by American writer Jerry Siegel and Canadian-born American artist Joe Shuster in 1932 while both were living in Cleveland, Ohio, and sold to Detective...
, Batman
Batman
Batman is a fictional character created by the artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger. A comic book superhero, Batman first appeared in Detective Comics #27 , and since then has appeared primarily in publications by DC Comics...
, Spider-Man
Spider-Man
Spider-Man is a fictional Marvel Comics superhero. The character was created by writer-editor Stan Lee and writer-artist Steve Ditko. He first appeared in Amazing Fantasy #15...
- dammit, these characters weren't even allowed to be Jewish like their creators, let alone be black." Recognizing the influence of comics on popular culture
Popular culture
Popular culture is the totality of ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images and other phenomena that are deemed preferred per an informal consensus within the mainstream of a given culture, especially Western culture of the early to mid 20th century and the emerging global mainstream of the...
, some members of ethnic and racial communities have focused their attention on stereotypes within comics, and have begun lobbying to change them. This is accomplished in many ways, frequently by either writing new character of color or "trans-racializing" existing characters from Whites to racial or ethnic minorities (e.g. the changing of Karate Kid
Karate Kid (comics)
Karate Kid is a fictional character, a superhero in the future of the DC Comics universe, and a member of the Legion of Super-Heroes. He is a master of every form of martial arts to have been developed by the 31st century...
's race from White to Asian).
Given the recent popularity of injecting characters of color into popular comic titles, a new concern has arisen regarding possible tokenism
Tokenism
In the arts, employment, and politics, tokenism is a policy or practice of limited inclusion or artistic and/or political representation of members of a traditionally marginalized group, usually creating a false appearance of inclusive practices rather than discrimination, intentional or not...
, and many writers advocate not just the inclusion of characters of color into predominantly White casts of characters, but that these minority characters defy the racial and ethnic stereotypes so prevalent in the history of comics, as well as maintaining the high standard of comic book writing. Daley Osiyemi, creator of Brodie's Law
Brodie's law
Brodie's Law is a comic book series created by Daley Osiyemi and David Bircham which tells the story of anti-hero, Jack Brodie, East end Gangster, expert thief and professional killer, who in a twist of fate gains the ability to steal his victims' souls and take on their appearance, memories and...
and co-founder of Pulp Theatre Entertainment said, "...we don't just want black characters or superheroes in comics as mere tokens, they have to be strong characters in their own right and have strong stories built around them."
In 2007 the scholarly journal MELUS (publication of the Society for the Study of Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States) devoted an entire issue to the literary and sociological representations of race and ethnicity in comics. The issue was guest edited by Derek Parker Royal, and it included essays on older graphic narratives (such as Jackie Ormes's Torchy Brown and Miné Okubo's Citizen 13660), more recent graphic novels (Ho Che Anderson
Ho Che Anderson
Ho Che Anderson, born 1969 in London, is a cartoonist and comics artist primarily affiliated with Fantagraphics publishers.-Biography:Anderson was one of the creators to submit ideas when Fantagraphics put out a call for adult comics and the submission became I Want to Be Your Dog.He wrote,...
's King, Ben Katchor
Ben Katchor
Ben Katchor is an American cartoonist best known for his comic strip Julius Knipl, Real Estate Photographer. He has contributed comics and drawings to The New Yorker and The New York Times...
's The Jew of New York, and Mark Kalesniko's Mail Order Bride), as well as various comic book series (Dwayne McDuffie's Deathlok
Deathlok
Deathlok is a fictional cyborg published by Marvel Comics. He first appeared in Astonishing Tales #25 , and was created by Rich Buckler and Doug Moench...
, Adrian Tomine
Adrian Tomine
Adrian Tomine , a popular contemporary cartoonist, is best known for his ongoing comic book series Optic Nerve and his periodical illustrations in The New Yorker.- Biography :...
's Optic Nerve, and Los Bros Hernandez's Love and Rockets
Love and Rockets (comics)
Love and Rockets is a black and white comic book series by Gilbert Hernandez and Jaime Hernandez, sometimes cited jointly as Los Bros Hernandez. Their brother Mario Hernandez is an occasional contributor...
). Gilbert Hernandez
Gilbert Hernandez
Gilberto Hernández, born February 1, 1957, in Oxnard, California, usually credited as Gilbert Hernandez and also known by the nickname Beto , is an American comics writer/artist...
illustrated the cover, and the issue included an interview with him as well.
Black
The first Black character to be incorporated into a syndicated comic strip was Lothar who appeared in Mandrake the MagicianMandrake the Magician
Mandrake the Magician is a syndicated newspaper comic strip, created by Lee Falk , which began June 11, 1934. Phil Davis soon took over as the strip's illustrator, while Falk continued to script. The strip was distributed by King Features Syndicate.Davis worked on the strip until his death in 1964,...
in the 1930s. He was Mandrake's sidekick: the circus strongman, who wore a Tarzan
Tarzan
Tarzan is a fictional character, an archetypal feral child raised in the African jungles by the Mangani "great apes"; he later experiences civilization only to largely reject it and return to the wild as a heroic adventurer...
-style costume, was drawn in the Sambo
Little Black Sambo
The Story of Little Black Sambo is a children's book written and illustrated by Helen Bannerman, and first published by Grant Richards in October 1899 as one in a series of small-format books called The Dumpy Books for Children....
-style of the time (see below) and was poor, and uneducated. Since the introduction of Lothar, Black characters have a received a variety of treatments in comics, and not all of them positive.
Physical caricatures
Early graphic art of all kinds often depicted Black characters in a stylized fashion, emphasizing certain physical features to form a recognizable racial caricature of Black faces. These features often included long unkempt hair, broad noses, enormous red-tinted lips, dark skin and ragged clothing reminiscent of those worn by Black slavesSlavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
. These characters were also depicted as speaking accented English. In the early 20th century United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, these kinds of representations were seen frequently in newspaper comic strips and political cartoons, as well as in later comic magazines, and were also present in early cartoons by Disney and Looney Tunes
Looney Tunes
Looney Tunes is a Warner Bros. animated cartoon series. It preceded the Merrie Melodies series and was Warner Bros.'s first animated theatrical series. Since its first official release, 1930's Sinkin' in the Bathtub, the series has become a worldwide media franchise, spawning several television...
. In comics, nameless Black bystanders (see right) and even some notable heroes and villains were developed in this style, including Ebony White
Ebony White
Ebony White is a fictional character from the 1940 comics series The Spirit, created by Will Eisner. He first appeared in the The Spirit comic strip of June 2, 1940. He is a black sidekick to Denny Colt, the title character. His age is ambiguous: sometimes he appears to be a young boy, at other...
, sidekick of The Spirit
The Spirit
The Spirit is a crime-fighting fictional character created by writer-artist Will Eisner. He first appeared June 2, 1940 in "The Spirit Section", the colloquial name given to a 16-page Sunday supplement, distributed to 20 newspapers by the Register and Tribune Syndicate and reaching five million...
(see below) and Steamboat, valet of Billy Batson.
Ebony White
WriterWriter
A writer is a person who produces literature, such as novels, short stories, plays, screenplays, poetry, or other literary art. Skilled writers are able to use language to portray ideas and images....
-artist
Artist
An artist is a person engaged in one or more of any of a broad spectrum of activities related to creating art, practicing the arts and/or demonstrating an art. The common usage in both everyday speech and academic discourse is a practitioner in the visual arts only...
Will Eisner
Will Eisner
William Erwin "Will" Eisner was an American comics writer, artist and entrepreneur. He is considered one of the most important contributors to the development of the medium and is known for the cartooning studio he founded; for his highly influential series The Spirit; for his use of comics as an...
is sometimes criticized for his depiction of Ebony White, the young African American
African American
African Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have at least partial ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa and are the direct descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States...
sidekick
Sidekick
A sidekick is a close companion who is generally regarded as subordinate to the one he accompanies. Some well-known fictional sidekicks are Don Quixote's Sancho Panza, Sherlock Holmes' Doctor Watson, The Lone Ranger's Tonto, The Green Hornet's Kato and Batman's Robin.-Origins:The origin of the...
of Eisner's 1940s and 1950s character The Spirit. Eisner later admitted to consciously stereotyping the character, but said he tried to do so with "responsibility", and argued that "at the time humor consisted in our society of bad English and physical difference in identity". The character developed beyond the stereotype as the series progressed, and Eisner also introduced black characters (such as the plain-speaking Detective Grey) who defied popular stereotypes.
In a 1966 New York Herald Tribune
New York Herald Tribune
The New York Herald Tribune was a daily newspaper created in 1924 when the New York Tribune acquired the New York Herald.Other predecessors, which had earlier merged into the New York Tribune, included the original The New Yorker newsweekly , and the Whig Party's Log Cabin.The paper was home to...
feature by his former office manager-turned-journalist, Marilyn Mercer wrote, "Ebony never drew criticism from Negro groups (in fact, Eisner was commended by some for using him), perhaps because, although his speech pattern was early Minstrel Show
Minstrel show
The minstrel show, or minstrelsy, was an American entertainment consisting of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music, performed by white people in blackface or, especially after the Civil War, black people in blackface....
, he himself derived from another literary tradition: he was a combination of Tom Sawyer
Tom Sawyer
Thomas "Tom" Sawyer is the title character of the Mark Twain novel The Adventures of Tom Sawyer . He appears in three other novels by Twain: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn , Tom Sawyer Abroad , and Tom Sawyer, Detective .Sawyer also appears in at least three unfinished Twain works, Huck and Tom...
and Penrod
Penrod
Penrod is a collection of comic sketches by Booth Tarkington that was first published in 1914. The book follows the misadventures of Penrod Schofield, an eleven-year-old boy growing up in the pre-World War I Midwestern United States, in a similar vein to Tom Sawyer...
, with a touch of Horatio Alger hero, and color didn't really come into it".
Savages
Critics of the portrayal of early Black characters note the frequency with which Black characters were shown as uncivilized savages, frequently shown with bones in their ears, noses, and hair.Tintin in the Congo
The artist HergéHergé
Georges Prosper Remi , better known by the pen name Hergé, was a Belgian comics writer and artist. His best known and most substantial work is the 23 completed comic books in The Adventures of Tintin series, which he wrote and illustrated from 1929 until his death in 1983, although he was also...
received much criticism for his first comics. Tintin in the Congo
Tintin in the Congo
Tintin in the Congo is the second title in the comicbook series The Adventures of Tintin, written and drawn by Belgian cartoonist Hergé. Originally serialised in the Belgian children's newspaper supplement, Le Petit Vingtième between June 1930 and July 1931, it was first published in book form...
, from 1930, presented the typical colonial view Belgians
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
had about the people in Belgian Congo
Belgian Congo
The Belgian Congo was the formal title of present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo between King Leopold II's formal relinquishment of his personal control over the state to Belgium on 15 November 1908, and Congolese independence on 30 June 1960.-Congo Free State, 1884–1908:Until the latter...
, including the missionary
Missionary
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to do evangelism or ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care and economic development. The word "mission" originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin...
bringing civilization to the uneducated blacks. According to one reviewer, "the Africans are portrayed as primitive, simple-minded folk". Hergé, 23 years old at the time, defended himself as being naïve instead of intentionally racist. Nevertheless, the album wasn't translated into English until very recently, due to those concerns.
Animals
The historian Ian GordonIan Gordon (historian)
Ian Gordon is Associate Professor of American history at the Department of History, National University of Singapore, Singapore. He writes on comic strips and comic books and film and television.-Biography:...
, author of Comic Strips and Consumer Culture, 1890-1945, argues that the need for comic strips to appeal to diverse national audiences in the USA meant that the outright racial caricatures of minstrelsy did not translate to the comic strips with any commercial success. Instead artists and writers developed "de-raciate" Black stereotypes in the form of funny animal characters the first of which Felix the Cat owed his existence directly to the racialized humor of a strip named "Sambo and His Funny Noises." Other examples of such characters include Krazy Kat
Krazy Kat
Krazy Kat is an American comic strip created by cartoonist George Herriman, published daily in newspapers between 1913 and 1944. It first appeared in the New York Evening Journal, whose owner, William Randolph Hearst, was a major booster for the strip throughout its run...
, created by George Herriman
George Herriman
George Joseph Herriman was an American cartoonist, best known for his classic comic strip Krazy Kat.-Early life:...
who was born creole but died white, and Mickey Mouse
Mickey Mouse
Mickey Mouse is a cartoon character created in 1928 by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks at The Walt Disney Studio. Mickey is an anthropomorphic black mouse and typically wears red shorts, large yellow shoes, and white gloves...
.
Blaxploitation era
In the late-1960s and throughout the 1970s, several African-American heroes were created in the vein of BlaxploitationBlaxploitation
Blaxploitation or blacksploitation is a film genre which emerged in the United States circa 1970. It is considered an ethnic sub-genre of the general category of exploitation films. Blaxploitation films were originally made specifically for an urban black audience, although the genre's audience...
-era movie protagonists, and seemed to be a direct response to the notable Black Nationalist movement. These (predominantly male) heroes were often martial artists, came from the ghetto
Ghetto
A ghetto is a section of a city predominantly occupied by a group who live there, especially because of social, economic, or legal issues.The term was originally used in Venice to describe the area where Jews were compelled to live. The term now refers to an overcrowded urban area often associated...
, and were politically motivated. They were frequently pitted against White villains, representing the Black struggle against 'The Man': a catch-all phrase popularized during the African-American Civil Rights Movement
African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)
The African-American Civil Rights Movement refers to the movements in the United States aimed at outlawing racial discrimination against African Americans and restoring voting rights to them. This article covers the phase of the movement between 1955 and 1968, particularly in the South...
to represent the White power structure. However, as much as the Blaxploitation era superheroes contrasted earlier racial caricatures of Blacks in comics, one attribute remained common: hypersexuality; many Blaxploitation heroes were still highly masculinized, reminiscent of the Mandingo stereotype, and were frequently seen sexually dominating White female characters. Examples of such Blaxploitation characters include Luke Cage
Luke Cage
Luke Cage is a fictional character, a superhero appearing in comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Archie Goodwin and artist John Romita, Sr., he first appeared in Luke Cage, Hero for Hire #1...
, Misty Knight
Misty Knight
Misty Knight is a fictional character in Marvel Comics' Marvel Universe. She was first mentioned in Marvel Premiere #20 and appeared in the next issue. She normally appears with Colleen Wing.-Publication history:...
, Bronze Tiger
Bronze Tiger
Bronze Tiger is a fictional character, a superhero in the DC Universe. He is a martial artist who first appeared in Dragon's Fists, a novel by Dennis O'Neil and Jim Berry, starring Richard Dragon. His first DC Comics appearance was in Richard Dragon, Kung Fu Fighter.-Early years:Ben Turner comes...
and Black Lightning
Black Lightning
Black Lightning was one of the first major African American superheroes to appear in DC Comics. He debuted in Black Lightning #1 , and was created by Tony Isabella and Trevor Von Eeden.- Publication history :...
.
Black proteges
In the 1970s, several African American heroes were created and paired with established white heroes as sidekicks and black proteges. Black GoliathBill Foster (comics)
Dr. Bill Foster, also known as Black Goliath, the second Giant-Man, and the fourth Goliath, is a fictional character, a comic book superhero in the Marvel Comics universe.-Publication history:...
, for example, became a black and slightly inferior (in terms of scientific ability and combat experience) version of his white mentor.
Yellow Peril
Many Asian characters were pitted against White American protagonists in early American comics, capturing America's real-world frustrations and political distrust of foreign Asian powers. Symbolizing America's "phobia of the "Yellow PerilYellow Peril
Yellow Peril was a colour metaphor for race that originated in the late nineteenth century with immigration of Chinese laborers to various Western countries, notably the United States, and later associated with the Japanese during the mid 20th century, due to Japanese military expansion.The term...
", these characters were frequently of foreign nationality (usually Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
) and often possessed a stereotypically Asian appearance (for example, a long wispy moustache and yellow-tinted skin). They were often highly intelligent or in possession of a powerful, supernatural ability and generally occupied themselves with elaborate plans for world domination, although they were usually thwarted by the American heroes of their time. While usually serious threats, one somewhat humorous Yellow Peril villain was DC's Egg Fu
Egg Fu
Chang Tzu is a fictional supervillain published by DC Comics. Originally a Silver Age creation named Egg Fu who battled Wonder Woman, his character was revamped for the weekly 52 series...
, a giant Communist egg with facial features and a prehensile moustache.
Fu Manchu
In the early 20th century, author Sax RohmerSax Rohmer
Arthur Henry Sarsfield Ward , better known as Sax Rohmer, was a prolific English novelist. He is best remembered for his series of novels featuring the master criminal Dr...
published a series of novels focusing on the wildly popular Chinese villain, Dr. Fu Manchu
Fu Manchu
Dr. Fu Manchu is a fictional character introduced in a series of novels by British author Sax Rohmer during the first half of the 20th century...
. Attempting to capitalize on this success, DC Comics
DC Comics
DC Comics, Inc. is one of the largest and most successful companies operating in the market for American comic books and related media. It is the publishing unit of DC Entertainment a company of Warner Bros. Entertainment, which itself is owned by Time Warner...
and Marvel Comics
Marvel Comics
Marvel Worldwide, Inc., commonly referred to as Marvel Comics and formerly Marvel Publishing, Inc. and Marvel Comics Group, is an American company that publishes comic books and related media...
both published comic books featuring Chinese villains physically resembling Fu Manchu and possessing the same personality, sexual ambiguity, and ambitions for world domination. Because neither publisher possessed a license for the Fu Manchu character, these early Chinese comic book villains were either unnamed or had a different name than Fu Manchu. Examples include DC's Red Dragon and Marvel's Yellow Claw
Yellow Claw
The Yellow Claw is a fictional comic book supervillain in comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Al Feldstein and artist Joe Maneely, the character first appeared in Yellow Claw #1 , published by Atlas Comics, the 1950s predecessor of Marvel.-Publication history:While the...
and The Mandarin
Mandarin (comics)
The Mandarin is a fictional character, a Marvel Comics supervillain and the archenemy of Iron Man.In 2009, Mandarin was ranked as IGN's 81st Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time.-Publication history:...
.
In 1938, DC Comics obtained the license for Sax Rohmer's character, and subsequent titles featured Fu Manchu as a recurring villain http://www.njedge.net/~knapp/comic.htm. Marvel Comics obtained the rights for Fu Manchu in 1972, and he was notably introduced as the father of Marvel's Shang-Chi
Shang-Chi
Shang-Chi is a Marvel Comics character, often called the "Master of Kung Fu". He was created by writer Steve Englehart and artist Jim Starlin....
, protagonist of the Master of Kung Fu title.
Although both DC and Marvel have since declined to renew their license for the Fu Manchu character, Fu Manchu has made brief appearances in modern comics, usually referred to merely as 'The Doctor' (as in Alan Moore
Alan Moore
Alan Oswald Moore is an English writer primarily known for his work in comic books, a medium where he has produced a number of critically acclaimed and popular series, including Watchmen, V for Vendetta, and From Hell...
's League of Extraordinary Gentlemen).
Coolie
Several early characters of Asian descent were introduced as the clumsy, foolish and bumbling sidekicks of White male superheroes. These characters were frequently caricatures of the Chinese coolieCoolie
Historically, a coolie was a manual labourer or slave from Asia, particularly China, India, and the Phillipines during the 19th century and early 20th century...
, appearing short in stature, sporting bucked teeth and a queue
Queue (hairstyle)
The queue or cue is a hairstyle in which the hair is worn long and gathered up into a ponytail. It was worn traditionally by certain Native American groups and the Manchu of Manchuria.-Manchu Queue:...
, and spoke pidgin
Pidgin
A pidgin , or pidgin language, is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common. It is most commonly employed in situations such as trade, or where both groups speak languages different from the language of the...
English. These characters often served as comedy relief or as a convenient hostage for the villain of the day. Examples of such characters include the controversial Chop-Chop (aka Wu Cheng) of DC's Blackhawk
Blackhawk (comics)
Blackhawk, a long-running comic book series, was also a film serial, a radio series and a novel. The comic book was published first by Quality Comics and later by DC Comics. The series was created by Will Eisner, Chuck Cuidera, and Bob Powell, but the artist most associated with the feature is Reed...
team (see below) and Wing-How., sidekick of the Crimson Avenger
Crimson Avenger
The Crimson Avenger is the name of three separate fictional characters, superheroes who exist in the DC Comics universe.-Lee Walter Travis:The original Crimson Avenger made his first published appearance in Detective Comics #20...
.
Chop-Chop
Chop-Chop was the youngest member of the Blackhawk team created by Will EisnerWill Eisner
William Erwin "Will" Eisner was an American comics writer, artist and entrepreneur. He is considered one of the most important contributors to the development of the medium and is known for the cartooning studio he founded; for his highly influential series The Spirit; for his use of comics as an...
, Chuck Cuidera, and Bob Powell
Bob Powell (comics)
Bob Powell né Stanislav Robert Pawlowski was an American comic book artist known for his work during the 1930-40s Golden Age of comic books, including on the features "Sheena, Queen of the Jungle" and "Mr. Mystic". He received a belated credit in 1999 for co-writing the debut of the popular...
for Quality Comics
Quality Comics
Quality Comics was an American comic book publishing company that operated from 1939 to 1956 and was an influential creative force in what historians and fans call the Golden Age of comic books....
during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. Resembling other Chinese caricatures typical of the era, Chop-Chop was short with bright yellow skin, bucked teeth, and a queue
Queue (hairstyle)
The queue or cue is a hairstyle in which the hair is worn long and gathered up into a ponytail. It was worn traditionally by certain Native American groups and the Manchu of Manchuria.-Manchu Queue:...
. His primary role seemed to be as the chef of the Blackhawk team. Strangely, Chop-Chop was also the only member of the Blackhawks who did not wear a Blackhawk uniform; instead, he wore traditional Chinese shirt and pants.
Many members of the Asian American
Asian American
Asian Americans are Americans of Asian descent. The U.S. Census Bureau definition of Asians as "Asian” refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent, including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan,...
community found the character of Chop-Chop to be highly controversial and offensive. Addressing the disparity of Asian American characters in the comic industry and the stereotypical images of early characters, noted Asian American comics writer Larry Hama
Larry Hama
Larry Hama is an American comic book writer, artist, actor and musician who has worked in the fields of entertainment and publishing since the 1960s....
said, "Many companies were still coloring Asians bright yellow... In the '40s and '50s, the character Chop Chop in the 'Blackhawks' had big buck teeth, a long pigtail and lots of cleavers. It wasn't until sometime in the '60s that he evolved into a short slim guy who was a jaundiced shade of orange."
The event to which Hama refers occurred in Blackhawk #197 (June 1964). That issue began the "New Blackhawks", an attempt to modernize the team that included new uniforms. Chop-Chop got a uniform and his own aircraft (he had nearly always ridden with Blackhawk or one of the other team members prior to this time). Chop-Chop was treated and portrayed as a full member of the team from this point on but certain stereotypical factors were still in play. Like most Asian comic book heroes, he was now a martial arts expert. This was emphasized even more when the Blackhawks tried being super-powered heroes in issues #228 (January 1967) to #241 (Jun-Jul 1968). In that run of stories, Chop-Chop was known as "Dr. Hands."
In the next revival of the Blackhawks (with issue #244, Jan-Feb 1976), Chop-Chop got a new name, Chopper, and was treated pretty much like all the other members of the team. He was no longer an ethnic caricature and the decades of his portrayal as one were simply ignored as if they had never happened. It took a third revival of the title in 1982 (Blackhawk #251) to finally address that issue. Writer Mark Evanier
Mark Evanier
Mark Stephen Evanier is an American comic book and television writer, particularly known for his humor work. He is also known for his columns and blogs, and for his work as a historian and biographer of the comics industry, in particular his award-winning Jack Kirby biography, Kirby: King of...
and artist Dan Spiegle
Dan Spiegle
Dan Spiegle is an American comic book and cartoon artist and illustrator . He has had a long career in drawing comics based on movie and television characters, and has worked for companies including Dell Comics, DC Comics and Marvel Comics.-Life and career:In his second year of high school,...
avoided all the racial and ethnic stereotypes that had previously defined Chop-Chop’s character except one. They put him back in the coolie outfit that the character had worn for a large part of his existence. This was a deliberate move so they could examine why Chop-Chop was not treated like a full member of the team in a story titled "What’s the Matter with Chop-Chop?" (#265, December 1983). The story has the other Blackhawks examine their attitudes and feelings and, at the end, Wu Cheng gets respect and a uniform.
Howard Chaykin
Howard Chaykin
Howard Victor Chaykin is an American comic book writer and artist famous for his innovative storytelling and sometimes controversial material...
's 1987 Blackhawk limited series explains the earlier stereotypical representations as a comic-book-within-a-comic-book and the Chop-Chop of that team expresses indignation toward them.
Martial arts master
Nearly all Asian characters in mainstream American comics are capable of martial arts, and for several Asian characters, this is their only skill or ability. An overwhelming number of Asian characters, particularly those of Japanese descent, are portrayed as masters of ninjutsuNinjutsu
or may be:*the arts associated with espionage and assassination in feudal Japan, see Ninja*modern schools of martial arts claiming to be based in these traditions, see Modern Schools of Ninjutsu*fictional depictions, see Ninja in popular culture...
or the ways of the samurai
Samurai
is the term for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. According to translator William Scott Wilson: "In Chinese, the character 侍 was originally a verb meaning to wait upon or accompany a person in the upper ranks of society, and this is also true of the original term in Japanese, saburau...
, and are frequently introduced as teachers of non-Asian protagonists. Examples include Marvel's Shang-Chi
Shang-Chi
Shang-Chi is a Marvel Comics character, often called the "Master of Kung Fu". He was created by writer Steve Englehart and artist Jim Starlin....
, Colleen Wing
Colleen Wing
Colleen Wing is a fictional character in the Marvel Comics.-Publication history:Colleen Wing first appeared in Marvel Premiere #19 , and was created by Doug Moench and Larry Hama.-Fictional character biography:...
, Psylocke
Psylocke
Psylocke is a fictional character depicted in comic books published by Marvel Comics, most notably those comics featuring the superhero team the X-Men. The character has also appeared in licensed adaptations. Created by writer Chris Claremont and artist Herb Trimpe, she first appeared in the UK...
although she is actually British in an Asian body, Silver Samurai
Silver Samurai
The Silver Samurai is a fictional character in Marvel Comics' universe, occasionally a superhero and more often a supervillain. His first appearance was in Daredevil #111...
, DC's Katana
Katana (comics)
Katana is a fictional character, a superheroine that appears in comic books published by DC Comics. She first appeared in a special insert in The Brave and the Bold #200 , and was created to be a member of the first Outsiders team by writer Mike W...
, Lady Shiva
Lady Shiva
Lady Shiva is a fictional comic book character co-created by Dennis O'Neil and Ric Estrada, and published by DC Comics. She first appeared in Richard Dragon, Kung Fu Fighter as an antagonist of Richard Dragon...
, and Cassandra Cain
Cassandra Cain
Cassandra Cain is a fictional character in the , one of several who has served as Batgirl, an important character in the Batman comic book franchise. Cassandra's backstory presents her as the daughter of assassins David Cain and Lady Shiva, she was deprived of speech and human contact during her...
. Frequently, martial arts masters are associated with Asian religions, such as Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
, and a common archetype is that of the elderly, wise monk
Monk
A monk is a person who practices religious asceticism, living either alone or with any number of monks, while always maintaining some degree of physical separation from those not sharing the same purpose...
.
Dragon lady
Female Asian characters in comics are frequently depicted as hypersexualized, cold-blooded and untrustworthy, in a racial caricature frequently referred to as the dragon lady. This stereotype references the popular villainess of the same name who first appeared in the vintage comic strip, Terry and the PiratesTerry and the Pirates (comic strip)
Terry and the Pirates was an action-adventure comic strip created by cartoonist Milton Caniff. Captain Joseph Patterson, editor for the Chicago Tribune New York News Syndicate, had admired Caniff’s work on the children's adventure strip Dickie Dare and hired him to create the new adventure strip,...
., and was later popularized in film by roles such as that of Anna May Wong
Anna May Wong
Anna May Wong was an American actress, the first Chinese American movie star, and the first Asian American to become an international star...
's title character in the film, Daughter of the Dragon
Daughter of the Dragon
Daughter of the Dragon is a movie directed by Lloyd Corrigan, released by Paramount Pictures, and starring Anna May Wong as Princess Ling Moy, Sessue Hayakawa as Ah Kee, and Warner Oland as Dr. Fu Manchu...
. In comics, examples of the dragon lady stereotype include Marvel's Fah Lo Suee (see below), the daughter of Fu Manchu
Fu Manchu
Dr. Fu Manchu is a fictional character introduced in a series of novels by British author Sax Rohmer during the first half of the 20th century...
.
Fah Lo Suee
Fah Lo Suee was a character in Sax RohmerSax Rohmer
Arthur Henry Sarsfield Ward , better known as Sax Rohmer, was a prolific English novelist. He is best remembered for his series of novels featuring the master criminal Dr...
's series of pulp novels featuring Dr. Fu Manchu
Fu Manchu
Dr. Fu Manchu is a fictional character introduced in a series of novels by British author Sax Rohmer during the first half of the 20th century...
. Fah Lo Suee's name meant "Sweet Perfume", and she was Fu Manchu's daughter. In Marvel Comics
Marvel Comics
Marvel Worldwide, Inc., commonly referred to as Marvel Comics and formerly Marvel Publishing, Inc. and Marvel Comics Group, is an American company that publishes comic books and related media...
, Fah Lo Suee was Shang-Chi
Shang-Chi
Shang-Chi is a Marvel Comics character, often called the "Master of Kung Fu". He was created by writer Steve Englehart and artist Jim Starlin....
's sister, and a hypersexualized temptress with the power of hypnosis. Her loyalties lay only with her own ambitions, and she was willing to turn on anyone, including her own father, if it would benefit her. She eventually joined the Secret Intelligence Service
Secret Intelligence Service
The Secret Intelligence Service is responsible for supplying the British Government with foreign intelligence. Alongside the internal Security Service , the Government Communications Headquarters and the Defence Intelligence , it operates under the formal direction of the Joint Intelligence...
(MI6), a top-secret British intelligence agency, where she became a high-ranking official, although she did this only in further pursuit of power for herself.
Middle Eastern
On the other hand, Jack ShaheenJack Shaheen
Jack G. Shaheen is Professor Emeritus of Mass Communication at Southern Illinois University. He was also a consultant on Middle East affairs for CBS News....
, professor emeritus of mass communications at Southern Illinois University
Southern Illinois University
Southern Illinois University is a state university system based in Carbondale, Illinois, in the Southern Illinois region of the state, with multiple campuses...
has written extensively on the plight of Arabs in the American mass media. He wrote that due to ignorance, fear, and political beliefs, Arabs are rarely portrayed as anything but villain
Villain
A villain is an "evil" character in a story, whether a historical narrative or, especially, a work of fiction. The villain usually is the antagonist, the character who tends to have a negative effect on other characters...
s. Those few positive portrayals are often passive, neither taking the limelight away from the most often Caucasian
Caucasian race
The term Caucasian race has been used to denote the general physical type of some or all of the populations of Europe, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Western Asia , Central Asia and South Asia...
protagonists, nor overshadowing the active role of the evil Arabs in the book. Examples include Marvel's Fasaud
Fasaud
Fasaud , is a fictional character appearing in the comic books published by Marvel Comics. Fasaud is usually portrayed as a supervillain and initially appeared as an adversary of the Fantastic Four.-Publication history:...
and the original Arabian Knight
Arabian Knight (comics)
Arabian Knight is a title used by three fictional characters appearing in the comic books published by Marvel Comics. All three characters are superheroes from Saudi Arabia.-Abdul Qamar:...
.
The terrorist
As far back as 1953, in an issue of John Wayne Adventure Comics, John WayneJohn Wayne
Marion Mitchell Morrison , better known by his stage name John Wayne, was an American film actor, director and producer. He epitomized rugged masculinity and became an enduring American icon. He is famous for his distinctive calm voice, walk, and height...
captures an Arab who is attempting to drive American oil companies out by launching a terrorist campaign.
See also
- List of black superheroes
- List of Latino superheroes
- List of Asian superheroes
- List of Native American superheroes