Dance and Dancers in Ancient Egypt
Encyclopedia
Dancers
Dancing played a vital role in the lives of the ancient Egyptians. All social class
es were exposed to music and dancing. “The laborers worked in rhythmic motion to the sounds of songs and percussion, and street dancers entertained passers by.” (Ancient Egypt, 1) The trf was a dance performed by a pair of men during the Old Kingdom
. Dance troupes were accessible to perform at dinner parties, banquets, lodging houses, and even religious temples. Some women from wealthy harem
s were trained in music and dance. They danced for royalty accompanied by female musicians playing on guitar
s, lyre
s and harp
s. However, no well-bred Egyptian would dance in public, because that was the privilege of the lower classes. Wealthy Egyptians kept slaves to entertain at their banquets, and present pleasant diversion to their owners.
“Elizabeth Artemis Mourat, performer and dance scholar has categorized these dances into six types: religious dances, non-religious zombie
dances, banquet dances, harem dances, combat dances and street dances.”(Ancient Egypt,1)
Irena Lexova mentioned that at the end of the fourth century BC there were acrobatic dances and pair dances. Men and women were seen dancing with clappers (wooden castanets). She also added that dancers of that era used a short curved stick or cane while dancing which is a prop still used by modern Egyptian dancers.
Solo, Pair and Group Dances
Ancient Egyptian Dancers danced either as soloists, in pairs or in groups depending on the occasion and type of the dance performed. In solo dances, “the king performed the sun dance. Priests designated as the kings representatives performed solo dances or led religious dances. At the harvest festival
, the king or his representative danced in honor of Min, a god of fertility
.”(Kassing, 46)
Pair Dancing
In pair dancing, it was either two males or females performing their dance as a kind of entertainment. It was noted in the 5th dynasty that girls held hands while performing unison symmetrical and dramatic movements to express emotions as longing or depression whereas in the 6th dynasty girls danced with canes.
Group Dances
There were two types of Egyptian group dance
s. One was performed in individual movements that confirmed a theme or idea or was carried out spontaneously as in prehistoric times. Dancers competed with one another, often in groups, substituting movement that were later established in funeral dances rites (Lexova 1935) “In the second group style, pairs or ranks of dancers executed repetitive movements in a circle. Trained pair dancers often performed at banquets and festivals.” (Kassing, 46)
Costumes and Headdress of Ancient Egyptian Dancers
In the Old Kingdom female dancers wore short men’s skirts or danced naked wearing just a belt around their waist. Some dancers wore long or short transparent garments sometimes completely revealing the right side of their chests. Whereas in the Middle and New kingdoms dancers wore transparent broad long cloaks with tight or loose sleeves. Dancers adorned themselves in brightly decorated collars, bracelets, earrings, and ribbons or garlands on their heads. The dancers also wore cones made of fragranced semi solid fat, used to give out a pleasant perfume as the dancers performed.
The Old and Middle Kingdom
women’s hair dress was characterized by “evenly cut and smoothly combed down, divided into
two thinner plaits hanging from the shoulders down to the chest and one broad plait covering the upper part of the back.” (Lexova, 59)
Female dancers who did not have long hair resorted to wearing wigs styled in the same fashion.
The Egyptian male dancers in both the old and middle kingdoms wore the regular men’s dress viz. skirt or an apron with round edges in the front.
The dancers of the dwarf dances wore a crown made of reeds or palm fibers woven into the shape of white upper Egyptian crown. For ornaments male dancers wore collars adorned with ties, they also wore chains around their necks, whereas the younger boys wore bracelets on their feet.
Musical Instruments
The ancient Egyptians used a vast array of musical instruments such as harps, lutes, drums, flute
s, cymbal
s, clappers and tambourine
s that played a prominent role in melodic compositions of ancient Egyptians composers and musicians. “Only musicians directly associated with the dancers are those clapping their hands, using clappers or playing tambourines, drums, sistrum
s or other percussion instrument to beat out tempo and rhythm.” (Metwally, 2) It was rare to find wind or stringed instrument
players close to dancers in the same scene. However, it was noted that whenever musicians are depicted, dancers were not generally far away.
Types of Dancing
Funeral Dances “It included three types of dances: ritual, postures and gestures and secular dances. During the old kingdom, just after the mummification process was completed, dances were performed by a specialized group of ladies known as “the acacia house”. At Beni Hasan
, Middle kingdom tomb, there are scenes depicting dancers following the funerary procession and performing acrobat
s. Another group of funerary dances were the mww (muu) - dancers, known from the old kingdom through the New Kingdom. These wore kilts and reed crowns and dances performed when the funeral procession reached the tomb, to symbolically ferry the dead across the waters leading to the netherworld. Dancing dwarfs
were known from the old kingdom and were prized for their rarity. They used to dance at the entrance of the shaft. The dances they performed were farewell performances associated with the departure of the sun. The dwarfs were used as they were thought to represent the sun due to their stunted growth.
Another kind of funeral dance was seen during the Middle and New kingdoms in celebration of the coming of the goddess Hathor
(the lady of drunkenness) whose responsibility was to help the deceased enter the underworld, and was the main force behind their rebirth; so an appeal was recited or sung using percussion instruments and the clapping of hands and sticks. Banquet scenes represented in New Kingdom tombs combined the ritual and domestic sides of a family feast, where music and dancing took place to help people forget how short their lives were.
After the new Kingdom changes of tomb decoration took place funerary dances were no longer depicted on tomb walls but were found in temples instead. The dancing scenes portrayed in temples reflected both royal and divine ceremonies. All dancing scenes had one common feature that being the solemn procession of the sacred barks carrying a god.
Festive Dances among the festivals during which dancing took place the following are enumerated:
Sed–festival dances took place during jubilee ceremonies which celebrated the renewal pledge to the king. Such dances varied in accordance to the religious significance and the reflection of the local mythology of the God to whom they were directed.
Valley festival at Thebes celebrates the God Amun
’s trip from Karnak
temple to visit the tombs on the West Bank passing by the sanctuary of Hathor. As the procession moved from one place to another, families rejoiced and danced.
Opet Feast another event associated with God Amun’s visit to his wife Goddess Mut
from Karnak Temple to Luxor
temple. This procession was marked by groups of women doing acrobatic dances together with dark dancers, probably Nubia
ns who jumped and merged with the drums.
Feast of Min god of fertility and regeneration: The dancers in this feast were members of his cult. Drawings representing this feast showed priests and monkeys dancing. These drawings could have had a symbolic meaning rather than an actual representation of reality.
Nile Flood Feast (The New Year celebration): Dancing played a vital role in this festivity as it helped transform the dangerous Sekhmet
into the mild Hathor, thereby protecting the ancient land from Sekhmet’s evil and deadly demons. These dances included all possible forms of movement including acrobats and exotic foreign dances.
Dramatic Dances “Dance dramas provided religious education
for young Egyptians the most significant one the Osiris
fertility rite which was performed both inside and outside of the temple. It portrayed the God’s adventures through mimetic dances. (Kassing, 45)
Conclusion
To sum up, the ancient Egyptian society celebrated life to the fullest. They sang and danced on every occasion. It was stated in one of the articles that “the first great culture to infuse its entire society with the magic of music and dance was that of ancient Egypt.” (Music and Dance, 1) Dancing was used as a means of expressing feelings of sadness or joy, celebrating the idea of rebirth in all its aspects. Some of the funerary dances were performed to celebrate the rejuvenation and regeneration of the dead body. One of these funerary dances was performed in honor of Hathor who meets the dead at the entrance of the underworld and acts as the main agent of their rebirth. The dancing dwarfs’ dance, at the funerals of the sacred bulls Apis
and Mnevis, was related to the rebirth of Osiris and the sun god. Also the dancing activities done during the jubilee ceremony was a renewal event for the king. “Hence in Ancient Egypt, dance marked time. It evidenced the moment of radical change, when something ends and something else begins. It protected the ancient Egyptians from various dangers as well as celebrated what was to be born anew.” (Metwally, 4)
Further Reading
Kassing , Gayle. History of Dance. Print.
Lexova, Irena, Milada Lexova, Diane Bergman, and K. Haltmar .Ancient Egyptian Dancers. Print.
Strouhal, Eugen , Evžen Strouhal, and Werner Forman. Life of the Ancient Egyptians . Print.
References
"Ancient Egypt." Origins of Oriental Dance: Pt 3- Costumes 1-6. Web.6 July 2009.
.
"Art in Ancient Egypt." Art in Ancient Egypt 25 August 2008 1-18. Web.12 July 2009.
.
"Dance in Visual Art - Drawn figures, Representing dancers, Choosing poses,Textual sources,Sources." Dance in Visual Art -
Drawn figures, Representing dancers, Choosing poses, Textual ... 1-3. Web.12 July2009.
.
Dunn, Jimmy. "To Dance in Ancient Egypt ." To Dance in Ancient Egypt 1-7. Web.5 July 2009.
.
"Historic Illustration of Dancing." The Dance: Historic Illustration of Dancing from 1-29. Web.6 July 2009.
.
"The Dancing Of Ancient Egypt And Greece." The Dancing Of Ancient Egypt And Greece [1924] 1-8. Web.12 July 2009.
.
Kassing, Gayle . "History of Dance." 45-48. Web.5 July 2009.
OjQlllZt&sig=oAbJSaMjsCu83k9uQwUwwjlRDMA&hl=ar&ei=5dxRSs7PEumMjAf9tbyvBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5>.
Lexova, Irena, Milada Lexova, Diane Bergman, and K. Haltmar. "Ancient Egyptian Dancers.” 57-66. Web.5 July 2009.
V8&sig=IJplgf6jeayemZqBLU5hBq04Tnk&hl=ar&ei=e9hRSujoA8qZjAeouOTABQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2>.
Metwally, Yasser . "Dancing in Ancient Egypt ." Dancing in Ancient Egypt<< Usamamohd’s weblog 1-4. Web.5 July 2009.
"Music & Dance." The Music & Dance of Ancient Egypt 1-4. Web.6 July 2009.
.
Reeder, Greg. "The Mysterious Muu and the Dance they do." The Mysterious Muu and the Dance they do [1995] 1-13. Web.5 July
2009.
Strouhal, Eugen, Evžen Strouhal, and Werner Forman
. "Life of the Ancient Egyptians." 41-48.Web.5 July 2009.
egypt&source=bl&ots=1HJxA9tVeb&sig=FfmlDHUzOzJU05jeaCLymaHV06M&hl=ar&ei=dW5ASrrSHJSMjAfT4tGvAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=4>.
Dancing played a vital role in the lives of the ancient Egyptians. All social class
Social class
Social classes are economic or cultural arrangements of groups in society. Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, economists, anthropologists and social historians. In the social sciences, social class is often discussed in terms of 'social stratification'...
es were exposed to music and dancing. “The laborers worked in rhythmic motion to the sounds of songs and percussion, and street dancers entertained passers by.” (Ancient Egypt, 1) The trf was a dance performed by a pair of men during the Old Kingdom
Old Kingdom
Old Kingdom is the name given to the period in the 3rd millennium BC when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievement – the first of three so-called "Kingdom" periods, which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley .The term itself was...
. Dance troupes were accessible to perform at dinner parties, banquets, lodging houses, and even religious temples. Some women from wealthy harem
Harem
Harem refers to the sphere of women in what is usually a polygynous household and their enclosed quarters which are forbidden to men...
s were trained in music and dance. They danced for royalty accompanied by female musicians playing on guitar
Guitar
The guitar is a plucked string instrument, usually played with fingers or a pick. The guitar consists of a body with a rigid neck to which the strings, generally six in number, are attached. Guitars are traditionally constructed of various woods and strung with animal gut or, more recently, with...
s, lyre
Lyre
The lyre is a stringed musical instrument known for its use in Greek classical antiquity and later. The word comes from the Greek "λύρα" and the earliest reference to the word is the Mycenaean Greek ru-ra-ta-e, meaning "lyrists", written in Linear B syllabic script...
s and harp
Harp
The harp is a multi-stringed instrument which has the plane of its strings positioned perpendicularly to the soundboard. Organologically, it is in the general category of chordophones and has its own sub category . All harps have a neck, resonator and strings...
s. However, no well-bred Egyptian would dance in public, because that was the privilege of the lower classes. Wealthy Egyptians kept slaves to entertain at their banquets, and present pleasant diversion to their owners.
“Elizabeth Artemis Mourat, performer and dance scholar has categorized these dances into six types: religious dances, non-religious zombie
dances, banquet dances, harem dances, combat dances and street dances.”(Ancient Egypt,1)
Irena Lexova mentioned that at the end of the fourth century BC there were acrobatic dances and pair dances. Men and women were seen dancing with clappers (wooden castanets). She also added that dancers of that era used a short curved stick or cane while dancing which is a prop still used by modern Egyptian dancers.
Solo, Pair and Group Dances
Ancient Egyptian Dancers danced either as soloists, in pairs or in groups depending on the occasion and type of the dance performed. In solo dances, “the king performed the sun dance. Priests designated as the kings representatives performed solo dances or led religious dances. At the harvest festival
Harvest festival
A Harvest Festival is an annual celebration which occurs around the time of the main harvest of a given region. Given the differences in climate and crops around the world, harvest festivals can be found at various times throughout the world...
, the king or his representative danced in honor of Min, a god of fertility
Fertility
Fertility is the natural capability of producing offsprings. As a measure, "fertility rate" is the number of children born per couple, person or population. Fertility differs from fecundity, which is defined as the potential for reproduction...
.”(Kassing, 46)
Pair Dancing
In pair dancing, it was either two males or females performing their dance as a kind of entertainment. It was noted in the 5th dynasty that girls held hands while performing unison symmetrical and dramatic movements to express emotions as longing or depression whereas in the 6th dynasty girls danced with canes.
Group Dances
There were two types of Egyptian group dance
Group dance
Group dances are danced by groups of people simultaneously, as opposed to individuals dancing alone or individually, and as opposed to couples dancing together but independently of others dancing at the same time, if any....
s. One was performed in individual movements that confirmed a theme or idea or was carried out spontaneously as in prehistoric times. Dancers competed with one another, often in groups, substituting movement that were later established in funeral dances rites (Lexova 1935) “In the second group style, pairs or ranks of dancers executed repetitive movements in a circle. Trained pair dancers often performed at banquets and festivals.” (Kassing, 46)
Costumes and Headdress of Ancient Egyptian Dancers
In the Old Kingdom female dancers wore short men’s skirts or danced naked wearing just a belt around their waist. Some dancers wore long or short transparent garments sometimes completely revealing the right side of their chests. Whereas in the Middle and New kingdoms dancers wore transparent broad long cloaks with tight or loose sleeves. Dancers adorned themselves in brightly decorated collars, bracelets, earrings, and ribbons or garlands on their heads. The dancers also wore cones made of fragranced semi solid fat, used to give out a pleasant perfume as the dancers performed.
The Old and Middle Kingdom
Middle Kingdom
Middle Kingdom may refer to:*China, traditional translation of its common name, Zhōngguó *Middle Kingdom of Egypt*Middle kingdoms of India...
women’s hair dress was characterized by “evenly cut and smoothly combed down, divided into
two thinner plaits hanging from the shoulders down to the chest and one broad plait covering the upper part of the back.” (Lexova, 59)
Female dancers who did not have long hair resorted to wearing wigs styled in the same fashion.
The Egyptian male dancers in both the old and middle kingdoms wore the regular men’s dress viz. skirt or an apron with round edges in the front.
The dancers of the dwarf dances wore a crown made of reeds or palm fibers woven into the shape of white upper Egyptian crown. For ornaments male dancers wore collars adorned with ties, they also wore chains around their necks, whereas the younger boys wore bracelets on their feet.
Musical Instruments
The ancient Egyptians used a vast array of musical instruments such as harps, lutes, drums, flute
Flute
The flute is a musical instrument of the woodwind family. Unlike woodwind instruments with reeds, a flute is an aerophone or reedless wind instrument that produces its sound from the flow of air across an opening...
s, cymbal
Cymbal
Cymbals are a common percussion instrument. Cymbals consist of thin, normally round plates of various alloys; see cymbal making for a discussion of their manufacture. The greater majority of cymbals are of indefinite pitch, although small disc-shaped cymbals based on ancient designs sound a...
s, clappers and tambourine
Tambourine
The tambourine or marine is a musical instrument of the percussion family consisting of a frame, often of wood or plastic, with pairs of small metal jingles, called "zils". Classically the term tambourine denotes an instrument with a drumhead, though some variants may not have a head at all....
s that played a prominent role in melodic compositions of ancient Egyptians composers and musicians. “Only musicians directly associated with the dancers are those clapping their hands, using clappers or playing tambourines, drums, sistrum
Sistrum
A sistrum is a musical instrument of the percussion family, chiefly associated with ancient Iraq and Egypt. It consists of a handle and a U-shaped metal frame, made of brass or bronze and between 76 and 30 cm in width...
s or other percussion instrument to beat out tempo and rhythm.” (Metwally, 2) It was rare to find wind or stringed instrument
players close to dancers in the same scene. However, it was noted that whenever musicians are depicted, dancers were not generally far away.
Types of Dancing
Funeral Dances “It included three types of dances: ritual, postures and gestures and secular dances. During the old kingdom, just after the mummification process was completed, dances were performed by a specialized group of ladies known as “the acacia house”. At Beni Hasan
Beni Hasan
Beni Hasan is an Ancient Egyptian cemetery site. It is located approximately 20 kilometers to the south of modern-day Minya in the region known as Middle Egypt, the area between Asyut and Memphis.While there are some Old Kingdom burials at the site, it was primarily used during the Middle...
, Middle kingdom tomb, there are scenes depicting dancers following the funerary procession and performing acrobat
Acrobat
Acrobat may refer to:* Acrobat, one who practises acrobaticsIn music:* "Acrobat" , from U2's album Achtung Baby* "Acrobat", a song from Maxïmo Park's album A Certain TriggerIn literature:* Acrobat, a novel by Gonzalo Lira...
s. Another group of funerary dances were the mww (muu) - dancers, known from the old kingdom through the New Kingdom. These wore kilts and reed crowns and dances performed when the funeral procession reached the tomb, to symbolically ferry the dead across the waters leading to the netherworld. Dancing dwarfs
Dwarfism
Dwarfism is short stature resulting from a medical condition. It is sometimes defined as an adult height of less than 4 feet 10 inches , although this definition is problematic because short stature in itself is not a disorder....
were known from the old kingdom and were prized for their rarity. They used to dance at the entrance of the shaft. The dances they performed were farewell performances associated with the departure of the sun. The dwarfs were used as they were thought to represent the sun due to their stunted growth.
Another kind of funeral dance was seen during the Middle and New kingdoms in celebration of the coming of the goddess Hathor
Hathor
Hathor , is an Ancient Egyptian goddess who personified the principles of love, beauty, music, motherhood and joy. She was one of the most important and popular deities throughout the history of Ancient Egypt...
(the lady of drunkenness) whose responsibility was to help the deceased enter the underworld, and was the main force behind their rebirth; so an appeal was recited or sung using percussion instruments and the clapping of hands and sticks. Banquet scenes represented in New Kingdom tombs combined the ritual and domestic sides of a family feast, where music and dancing took place to help people forget how short their lives were.
After the new Kingdom changes of tomb decoration took place funerary dances were no longer depicted on tomb walls but were found in temples instead. The dancing scenes portrayed in temples reflected both royal and divine ceremonies. All dancing scenes had one common feature that being the solemn procession of the sacred barks carrying a god.
Festive Dances among the festivals during which dancing took place the following are enumerated:
Sed–festival dances took place during jubilee ceremonies which celebrated the renewal pledge to the king. Such dances varied in accordance to the religious significance and the reflection of the local mythology of the God to whom they were directed.
Valley festival at Thebes celebrates the God Amun
Amun
Amun, reconstructed Egyptian Yamānu , was a god in Egyptian mythology who in the form of Amun-Ra became the focus of the most complex system of theology in Ancient Egypt...
’s trip from Karnak
Karnak
The Karnak Temple Complex—usually called Karnak—comprises a vast mix of decayed temples, chapels, pylons, and other buildings, notably the Great Temple of Amun and a massive structure begun by Pharaoh Ramses II . Sacred Lake is part of the site as well. It is located near Luxor, some...
temple to visit the tombs on the West Bank passing by the sanctuary of Hathor. As the procession moved from one place to another, families rejoiced and danced.
Opet Feast another event associated with God Amun’s visit to his wife Goddess Mut
Mut
Mut, which meant mother in the ancient Egyptian language, was an ancient Egyptian mother goddess with multiple aspects that changed over the thousands of years of the culture. Alternative spellings are Maut and Mout. She was considered a primal deity, associated with the waters from which...
from Karnak Temple to Luxor
Luxor
Luxor is a city in Upper Egypt and the capital of Luxor Governorate. The population numbers 487,896 , with an area of approximately . As the site of the Ancient Egyptian city of Thebes, Luxor has frequently been characterized as the "world's greatest open air museum", as the ruins of the temple...
temple. This procession was marked by groups of women doing acrobatic dances together with dark dancers, probably Nubia
Nubia
Nubia is a region along the Nile river, which is located in northern Sudan and southern Egypt.There were a number of small Nubian kingdoms throughout the Middle Ages, the last of which collapsed in 1504, when Nubia became divided between Egypt and the Sennar sultanate resulting in the Arabization...
ns who jumped and merged with the drums.
Feast of Min god of fertility and regeneration: The dancers in this feast were members of his cult. Drawings representing this feast showed priests and monkeys dancing. These drawings could have had a symbolic meaning rather than an actual representation of reality.
Nile Flood Feast (The New Year celebration): Dancing played a vital role in this festivity as it helped transform the dangerous Sekhmet
Sekhmet
In Egyptian mythology, Sekhmet , was originally the warrior goddess as well as goddess of healing for Upper Egypt. She is depicted as a lioness, the fiercest hunter known to the Egyptians. It was said that her breath created the desert...
into the mild Hathor, thereby protecting the ancient land from Sekhmet’s evil and deadly demons. These dances included all possible forms of movement including acrobats and exotic foreign dances.
Dramatic Dances “Dance dramas provided religious education
Religious education
In secular usage, religious education is the teaching of a particular religion and its varied aspects —its beliefs, doctrines, rituals, customs, rites, and personal roles...
for young Egyptians the most significant one the Osiris
Osiris
Osiris is an Egyptian god, usually identified as the god of the afterlife, the underworld and the dead. He is classically depicted as a green-skinned man with a pharaoh's beard, partially mummy-wrapped at the legs, wearing a distinctive crown with two large ostrich feathers at either side, and...
fertility rite which was performed both inside and outside of the temple. It portrayed the God’s adventures through mimetic dances. (Kassing, 45)
Conclusion
To sum up, the ancient Egyptian society celebrated life to the fullest. They sang and danced on every occasion. It was stated in one of the articles that “the first great culture to infuse its entire society with the magic of music and dance was that of ancient Egypt.” (Music and Dance, 1) Dancing was used as a means of expressing feelings of sadness or joy, celebrating the idea of rebirth in all its aspects. Some of the funerary dances were performed to celebrate the rejuvenation and regeneration of the dead body. One of these funerary dances was performed in honor of Hathor who meets the dead at the entrance of the underworld and acts as the main agent of their rebirth. The dancing dwarfs’ dance, at the funerals of the sacred bulls Apis
APIS
APIS may refer to:*Advance Passenger Information System*Armour Piercing Incendiary Shells...
and Mnevis, was related to the rebirth of Osiris and the sun god. Also the dancing activities done during the jubilee ceremony was a renewal event for the king. “Hence in Ancient Egypt, dance marked time. It evidenced the moment of radical change, when something ends and something else begins. It protected the ancient Egyptians from various dangers as well as celebrated what was to be born anew.” (Metwally, 4)
Further Reading
Kassing , Gayle. History of Dance. Print.
Lexova, Irena, Milada Lexova, Diane Bergman, and K. Haltmar .Ancient Egyptian Dancers. Print.
Strouhal, Eugen , Evžen Strouhal, and Werner Forman. Life of the Ancient Egyptians . Print.
References
"Ancient Egypt." Origins of Oriental Dance: Pt 3- Costumes 1-6. Web.6 July 2009.
"Art in Ancient Egypt." Art in Ancient Egypt 25 August 2008 1-18. Web.12 July 2009.
"Dance in Visual Art - Drawn figures, Representing dancers, Choosing poses,Textual sources,Sources." Dance in Visual Art -
Drawn figures, Representing dancers, Choosing poses, Textual ... 1-3. Web.12 July2009.
Dunn, Jimmy. "To Dance in Ancient Egypt ." To Dance in Ancient Egypt 1-7. Web.5 July 2009.
"Historic Illustration of Dancing." The Dance: Historic Illustration of Dancing from 1-29. Web.6 July 2009.
"The Dancing Of Ancient Egypt And Greece." The Dancing Of Ancient Egypt And Greece [1924] 1-8. Web.12 July 2009.
Kassing, Gayle . "History of Dance." 45-48. Web.5 July 2009.
OjQlllZt&sig=oAbJSaMjsCu83k9uQwUwwjlRDMA&hl=ar&ei=5dxRSs7PEumMjAf9tbyvBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5>.
Lexova, Irena, Milada Lexova, Diane Bergman, and K. Haltmar. "Ancient Egyptian Dancers.” 57-66. Web.5 July 2009.
V8&sig=IJplgf6jeayemZqBLU5hBq04Tnk&hl=ar&ei=e9hRSujoA8qZjAeouOTABQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2>.
Metwally, Yasser . "Dancing in Ancient Egypt ." Dancing in Ancient Egypt<< Usamamohd’s weblog 1-4. Web.5 July 2009.
"Music & Dance." The Music & Dance of Ancient Egypt 1-4. Web.6 July 2009.
Reeder, Greg. "The Mysterious Muu and the Dance they do." The Mysterious Muu and the Dance they do [1995] 1-13. Web.5 July
2009.
Strouhal, Eugen, Evžen Strouhal, and Werner Forman
Werner Forman
Werner Forman was a Czech photographer, especially known for his art books on Ancient civilisations and non-European cultures. He published more than 80 books with his photographic images. The texts were mostly written by specialists in the area...
. "Life of the Ancient Egyptians." 41-48.Web.5 July 2009.
egypt&source=bl&ots=1HJxA9tVeb&sig=FfmlDHUzOzJU05jeaCLymaHV06M&hl=ar&ei=dW5ASrrSHJSMjAfT4tGvAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=4>.