The
Cantabrian Wars or
Astur-Cantabrian Wars (
29 BCYear 29 BC was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.-Rome:* Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus becomes Roman Consul for the fifth time. His partner is Sextus Appuleius. He was granted the title of imperator, and for the third time in Roman history the doors of the Temple of Janus...
-
19 BCYear 19 BC was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.-Rome:* Roman general Marcus Agrippa completed the Aqua Virgo aqueduct.* The last remnants of Spain were brought under Roman control....
) occurred during the
RomanAncient Rome was a civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea, it became one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
conquest of the provinces of
CantabriaCantabria is a Spanish province and autonomous community with Santander as its capital city. It is bordered on the east by the Basque Autonomous Community , on the south by Castile and León , on the west by the Principality of Asturias, and on the north by the Cantabrian Sea.Cantabria belongs to...
,
AsturiasThe Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community within the kingdom of Spain, former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
and
LeónThe city of León is the capital of León province in the autonomous community of Castile and León, in northwest Spain. Its population of 136,985 makes it the largest municipality in the province, accounting for over one quarter of the province's population...
. They were the final stage of the conquest of
HispaniaHispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula . When Rome was a republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior...
.
Antecedents
The
CantabriThe Cantabri were an ancient confederacy of eleven tribes, perhaps Celtic, that inhabited the north coast of Hispania in the whole modern province of Cantabria, the eastern third of Asturias and the nearby mountainous regions of modern Castile-Leon....
first appear in history in earlier wars in
IberiaThe Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes modern-day Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar and a very small area of France. It is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas...
, where they served as mercenaries on various sides. In this way, in the years preceding the wars in Cantabria and Asturias, the Roman military became familiar with the warlike characteristics of the peoples of northern Hispania. There are accounts, for instance, of Cantabrians in the army of Hannibal during the
Second Punic WarThe Second Punic War, also referred to as The Hannibalic War and The War Against Hannibal, lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. This was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic, who had three warring conflicts against each...
. Additionally, there is evidence that they fought alongside the Vaccaei in
151 BC-Carthage:* The Carthaginian debt to Rome is fully repaid, meaning that, according to Carthage, the treaty with Rome, which was put in place at the end of the Second Punic War, is no longer in force. The Romans do not agree with this interpretation...
, and helped break the Roman
siege of NumantiaThe Siege of Numantia was the culminating and pacifying action of the long-running Numantine War between the forces of the Roman Republic and those of the native Celtiberian population of Hispania Citerior. The Numantine War was the third of the Celtiberian Wars and it broke out in 143 BC...
. It is also believed that there were Cantabrian troops present in the
Sertorian WarsQuintus Sertorius was a Roman statesman and general, born in Nursia, in Sabine territory, around 124 BC.After acquiring some reputation in Rome as a jurist and an orator, he began a military career. His first recorded campaign was under Quintus Servilius Caepio at the Battle of Arausio, where he...
. According to Julius Caesar's own testimony, there were Cantabrians at the
battle of IlerdaThe Battle of Ilerda took place in June 49 BC between the forces of Julius Caesar and the Spanish army of Pompey the Great, led by his legates Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius...
in
49 BCYear 49 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar.-Rome:*Consuls: Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus, Gaius Claudius Marcellus Maior.*The Great Roman Civil War commences...
.
With all these antecedents, the Cantabrians began to be known throughout the
Roman EmpireThe Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean. The term is used to describe the Roman state during and after the time of the first emperor,...
. Roman troops even lost one of their standards to them, something inexplicable and humiliating in those days. Such were the disasters and the embarrassments that, although the Roman historians justified the campaigns as retribution for Cantabrian incursions in the Roman-controlled Meseta Central, there must have been a certain lust after
AsturianThe Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community within the kingdom of Spain, former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
gold and Cantabrian iron as well. Finally, in
26 BCYear 26 BC was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.-Rome:* Imperator Caesar Augustus becomes Roman Consul for the eighth time...
, the Emperor himself, Caesar Augustus, went to
HispaniaHispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula . When Rome was a republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior...
, establishing his base in Segisama (
BurgosBurgos is a city of northern Spain, at the edge of the central plateau, with about 178,000 inhabitants in the city proper and another 15,000 in its suburbs. It is the capital of the province of Burgos, in the autonomous community of Castile and Léon...
)
Armies and strategies
According to the Roman historian
Dio CassiusLucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus , known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was a Roman consul and a noted historian writing in Greek...
, the tactics of the Cantabri and Astures were of
guerrilla warfareGuerrilla warfare is the irregular warfare warfare and combat in which a small group of combatants use mobile military tactics in the form of ambushes and raids to combat a larger and less mobile formal army....
, avoiding direct attacks on the Roman forces because of their inferior numbers. Their better knowledge of the difficult and mountainous terrain allowed them to conduct quick surprise strikes with ranged weapons, with ambushes followed by quick retreats, causing great damage to the Roman columns and supply lines.
According to what remains from representations on coins and steles, the Cantabri were skilled in light arms. Lucan referred to this when he wrote,
Cantaber exiguis et longis Teutonus armis (The Cantabrian with his short weapons and the Teuton with his long ones). They went equipped with small
swordA sword is a long, edged piece of metal, used in many civilizations throughout the world, primarily as a cutting or thrusting weapon and occasionally for clubbing...
s,
daggerA dagger is a typically double-edged blade used for stabbing or thrusting. They often fulfill the role of a secondary defense weapon in close combat...
s, small
spearA spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a sharpened head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with bamboo spears, or it may be of another material fastened to the shaft, such as obsidian, iron or bronze...
s or javelins,
lanceThe term lance has become a catchall for a variety of different pole weapons based on the spear. The name is derived from lancea, Roman auxiliaries' javelin, although according to the OED, the word may be of Iberian origin....
s, round or oval
shields-United Kingdom:* North Shields, Tyneside, England* South Shields, Tyneside, England* Shields Road subway station, an underground station in Glasgow, Scotland-United States:* Shields, Indiana, an unincorporated community...
of wood, and leather chest protection. They also used a weapon like the Iberian
falcataThe falcata is a type of sword typical of Pre-Roman Hispania , similar to the Greek kopis or Nepalese kukri.-Name:...
, and the
bipinnis, a type of double-headed axe particular to the peoples of Northern Hispania. There is no proof of their use of
archeryArchery is the art, practice, or skill of propelling arrows with the use of a bow. Archery has historically been used for hunting and combat; in modern times, however, its main use is that of a recreational activity...
or
slingThe word sling may refer to:* Sling , a device used to hurl projectiles* Sling is an item of climbing equipment consisting of a sewn loop of webbing that can be wrapped around sections of rock or tied to other pieces of equipment.* Sling * Ski jumping sling is an item of sports training...
s, although it is quite probable that they knew and used them.
The Cantabri were able at the time to ride horses, as reflected in the fact that some of their
cavalry tacticsFor much of history humans have used some form of cavalry for war. Cavalry tactics have evolved over time. Tactically, the main advantages of cavalry over infantry troops were greater mobility, bigger impact and a higher position.-Predecessors:...
would be adopted by the Roman army. Examples include the 'circulus cantabricus', a semicircular formation, and the 'cantabricus impetus', a massive frontal attack against enemy lines with the goal of breaching them, as described by Flavius Arrianus.
The quality of the Cantabrian enemy was such that Augustus was obliged to deploy a number of legions in the conflict:
- Legio I Augusta
- II Augusta
Legio secunda Augusta , was a Roman legion, levied by Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus in 43 BC, and still operative in Britannia in 4th century...
- IIII Macedonica
- V Alaudae
Legio quinta Alaudae sometimes known as Gallica, was levied by Julius Caesar in 52 BC from native Gauls. Their emblem was an elephant, and their cognomen Alaudae came from the high crest on their helmets, typical of the Gauls, which made them look like larks...
(operated in AsturiasThe Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community within the kingdom of Spain, former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
)
- VI Victrix
Legio sexta Victrix was a Roman legion founded by Octavian in 41 BC. It was the twin legion of VI Ferrata and perhaps held veterans of that legion, and some soldiers kept to the traditions of the Caesarian legion....
(operated in Asturias)
- VIIII Hispana
- X Gemina
Legio decima Gemina , was one of the four legions used by Julius Caesar in 58 BC, for his invasion of Gaul. There are still records of the X Gemina in Vienna in the beginning of the 5th century. The legion symbol was a bull...
(operated in Asturias)
- XX Valeria Victrix
Legio vigesima Valeria Victrix was a Roman legion, probably raised by Augustus some time after 31 BC. It served in Hispania, Illyricum, and Germania before participating in the invasion of Britannia in 43 AD, where it remained and was active until at least the beginning of the 4th century...
to which he added various auxiliary troops:
- Ala II Gallorum,
- Cohors II Gallorum,
- Ala II Thracum Victrix Civium Romanorum,
- Cohors IV Thracum Aequitata,
- Ala Parthorum
- Ala Augusta
The
Roman navyThe Roman Navy comprised the naval forces of the Roman state. Although the navy was instrumental in the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean Sea basin, it never enjoyed the prestige of the Roman legions...
was also sent to the Cantabrian coast from
Gallia AquitaniaGallia Aquitania was a province of the Roman Empire, bordered by the provinces of Gallia Lugdunensis, Gallia Narbonensis, and Hispania Tarraconensis...
. It was an important factor in the conflict's resolution, since it completed the encirclement of the Cantabri begun by the ground forces. It is calculated that, in total, the
Roman ArmyThe Roman Army was employed by the Romans, the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire, as part of the Roman military. Its most important infantry constituent for much of its history was the Roman legion, whose soldiers were called legionaries....
deployed 70,000 men, although these calculations vary amongst authors, because they used a 5,000 men per legion base. In reality, the figure should surpass 80,000 men counting auxiliaries since, through the reforms of
Gaius MariusGaius Marius was a Roman general and politician elected consul an unprecedented seven times during his career...
, the legion had about 6,000 soldiers. However, in Augustus' time, although a legion was officially composed of 6,200 men, for various reasons, the number usually oscillated between 5,000 and 8,000.
Bellum Asturicum
The Astures joined the Cantabri in a common defense. In the spring of
25 BCYear 25 BC was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.-Ancient China:*Government gives tributary states 20000 rolls of silk cloth and about 20000 pounds of silk floss.-Rome:...
, there were three Roman legions established near the Astura River (modern Esla River), with troops from the
Tarraconensis. According to contemporary Roman historian
FlorusFlorus, Roman historian, lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian.He compiled, chiefly from Livy, a brief sketch of the history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus . The work, which is called Epitome de T...
in his
Epitome of Roman History http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/florus2.html#33, the armies of the Astures Transmontani came down from their snow-covered mountains (which is perfectly possible in the
Picos de EuropaThe Picos de Europa is a range of mountains some 20 km inland from the northern coast of Spain, located in the Autonomous Communities of Asturias, Cantabria and Castile and León, forming part of the Cantabrian Mountains...
in spring) and settled near the Astura River, getting ready to take the three Roman winter camps.
However, the
brigaecini (Astures Cismontani) peoples of the
BenaventeBenavente is a municipality in the north of the province of Zamora, in the autonomous community Castile and Leon of Spain. It has about 20,000 inhabitants....
region informed Augustus on their intentions. Augustus gave Brigantum, the camp of Augustan Asturica, to the
Brigaeci as a reward for their help. Additionally, he shared out land in the plains to the allies. His general Carisius
http://www.rovenet.com/tno/carisius_leg%5Ccarisius.html attacked the
AsturThe Astures were the original Indo-European inhabitants of the northwest area of Hispania that now comprises almost the entire modern autonomous community of Asturias and the modern provinces León, and northern Zamora , and east of Trás os Montes in Portugal...
armies (probably commanded by
GausónGausón was a semi-legendary Astur general who fought the Romans in the Astur-Cantabrian Wars .Little is known about Gausón due to the lack of classical sources, but historical codexes, oral tradition and other several sources do mention his presence on the Cantabrian Wars as a military leader of...
), forcing them to take refuge in the fortified city of
Lancia, the most important Astures Cismontani fort according to
FlorusFlorus, Roman historian, lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian.He compiled, chiefly from Livy, a brief sketch of the history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus . The work, which is called Epitome de T...
.
Once
Lancia was besieged, the
AsturThe Astures were the original Indo-European inhabitants of the northwest area of Hispania that now comprises almost the entire modern autonomous community of Asturias and the modern provinces León, and northern Zamora , and east of Trás os Montes in Portugal...
armies took refuge in the
Mons Medullius (some scholars locate it at
Las MédulasLas Médulas, located near the town of Ponferrada in the region of El Bierzo , used to be the most important gold mine in the Roman Empire...
basing their opinions on
FlorusFlorus, Roman historian, lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian.He compiled, chiefly from Livy, a brief sketch of the history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus . The work, which is called Epitome de T...
who specifically names the site in his history of Rome). The Roman legions besieged the mountain, building a fifteen-mile-long
moatA moat is a deep, broad ditch, either dry or filled with water, that surrounds a castle, building or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. In some places moats evolved into more extensive water defences, including natural or artificial lakes, dams and sluices...
and
ditchA ditch is a narrow channel dug in the earth. In military engineering and fortification, a ditch is an obstacle, designed to slow down or break up an attacking force, while a trench is intended to provide cover to the defenders.- Uses :...
. According to
OrosiusPaulus Orosius was a Christian historian, theologian and disciple of Augustine of Hippo from Gallaecia. He is best known for his Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII , which he wrote in response to the belief that the decline of the Roman Empire was the result of its adoption of...
, the
AsturThe Astures were the original Indo-European inhabitants of the northwest area of Hispania that now comprises almost the entire modern autonomous community of Asturias and the modern provinces León, and northern Zamora , and east of Trás os Montes in Portugal...
soldiers preferred to commit suicide with their own weapons and
yew treeTaxus baccata is a conifer native to western, central and southern Europe, northwest Africa, northern Iran and southwest Asia. It is the tree originally known as yew, though with other related trees becoming known, it may be now known as the common yew, or European yew.-Description:It is a small-...
poison rather than surrender.
A year after his arrival, Augustus had to retire to
TarragonaTarragona is a city located in the south of Catalonia and east of Spain, by the Mediterranean Sea. It is the capital of the Spanish province of the same name and the capital of the Catalan comarca Tarragonès...
, presumably because of sickness. The conflict, however, lasted more than ten years (it serves as a reference that the Roman Empire conquered all of
GallaeciaGallaecia or
Callaecia was the name of a Roman province and an early Mediaeval kingdom that comprised a territory in the north-west of
Hispania...
in less than seven years). It was one of only two campaigns directed personally by Augustus against barbarians, the other being the one against the
IllyriansThe Illyrians were a group of tribes who inhabited the Western Balkans during classical antiquity. The territory the tribes covered came to be known as Illyria to Greek and Roman authors, corresponding roughly to the area between Adriatic sea in west, Drava river in North, Morava river in east...
from
35 BCYear 35 BC was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.-Rome:* Illyria becomes a Roman province....
to
33 BCYear 33 BC was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.-Rome:*Alexander Helios claimant King of Armenia, Media, and Parthia marries Princess Iotapa of Media, daughter of King Artavasdes I of Media....
.
End of the conflict
In this conflict, unusually, the Romans chose not to take prisoners. Moreover, there was a tradition among the Astures of preferring suicide to slavery. They did this by sword, by fire, or, primarily, by poisoning themselves with potions made for the purpose. According to
Silius ItalicusSilius Italicus, in full Tiberius Catius Silius Italicus , was a Latin epic poet.-Early life:His birthplace is probably Italica, in the Roman province of Hispania i.e., Spain...
they used a concoction made from the seeds of the
yew treeTaxus baccata is a conifer native to western, central and southern Europe, northwest Africa, northern Iran and southwest Asia. It is the tree originally known as yew, though with other related trees becoming known, it may be now known as the common yew, or European yew.-Description:It is a small-...
, a plant with mythic significance for the Celts.
StraboStrabo was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born in a wealthy family from Amaseia in Pontus , which had recently become part of the Roman Empire.. He studied under various geographers and philosophers; first in Nysa, later in Rome...
said that they belittled death and pain, to the point of singing hymns of victory while being
crucifiedCrucifixion is an ancient method of painful execution in which the condemned person is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and left to hang until dead...
. For them, according to Strabo, to die as soldiers and free men was a victory.
The major fighting was completed in
19 BCYear 19 BC was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.-Rome:* Roman general Marcus Agrippa completed the Aqua Virgo aqueduct.* The last remnants of Spain were brought under Roman control....
, although there were minor rebellions until
16 BCYear 16 BC was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.-Rome:* Noricum is incorporated into the Roman Empire.* Augustus reorganizes German provinces, makes Trier their capital....
.
RomeRome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated municipality , with over 2.7 million residents in , while the population of the urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 3.46 million. The metropolitan area of Rome is estimated by OECD to have a population of 3.7 million...
, as was their practice with other territories, began to impose their reforms. Despite the mass deaths, local resistance was such that the Romans had to station two legions (
X GeminaLegio decima Gemina , was one of the four legions used by Julius Caesar in 58 BC, for his invasion of Gaul. There are still records of the X Gemina in Vienna in the beginning of the 5th century. The legion symbol was a bull...
and IIII
Macedonica) there for seventy more years.
Through the Cantabrian War and the surrender of the Cantabri and Astures to Rome, the Roman legions adopted from them the solar symbol of twin crosses and lunar symbols, such as the Cantabri
lábaroThe Lábaro is a modern interpretation of an ancient military standard of the Cantabri people from pre-Roman Iberum. It consists of a purple cloth on which there is what would be called in heraldry a "saltire voided throughout" made up of curved lines, with knobs at the end of each...
. They would still be carrying this standard 300 years later. The Roman army also copied from the Cantabri the cavalry tactics
circulus cantabricus and
cantabricus impetus as already mentioned.
External links
(All of the following in
SpanishSpanish or Castilian is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that originated in northern Spain and gradually spread in the Kingdom of Castile, evolving into the principal language of government and trade in the Iberian peninsula...
)