Archips semiferanus
Encyclopedia
Archips semiferanus is a species of moth
in the family
Tortricidae
, and one of several species of moth commonly known as Oak leafroller or Oak leaf roller. The larvae feed on the leaves of oak
trees in the Eastern United States
and southeastern Canada
and are a major defoliator
of oak trees, which can lead to tree mortality. In Pennsylvania
in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Oak leafrollers defoliated over 1045000 acres (422,896.9 ha) and over $100,000,000 of timber was lost.
Adult Archips semiferanus moths lay masses of 40 to 50 eggs on oak tree branches and rough bark in July; these overwinter and hatch the next spring. The larvae eat tree buds and young leaves, then roll leaves together with silk (hence the name). They nest and eat inside the rolled leaves, then pupa
te in the leaves or crevices in June. After a few weeks the adult moths emerge, mate and lay the next generation of eggs.
in 1863, and is sometimes referred to as Archips semiferana, or as Capua semiferana. Both synonyms are also attributed to Walker. The larvae roll oak leaves together with silk, which gives the insect its common name.
Over 15 species of moths are referred to with the common name Oak leafroller, approximately three-fifths from the Tortricidae
family, but also from four other families. According to the United States Forest Service
, Archips semiferanus is the "most important oak leafroller" of these species; other common Oak leafroller species such as Archips argyrosplilus and Choristoneura fractivittana
are commonly found on oak trees, but do not cause the damage that A. semiferanus does.
in July each year, in groups of 40 to 50. The female covers the eggs with hairs from her body; they are deposited on "the base of large branches and rough bark patches on both tree trunks and limbs". The flat egg masses are white-gray in color and oval shaped, and are about 4.8 millimetre (0.188976377952756 in) across. The eggs overwinter and hatch in spring of the next year. The larva
e (or caterpillar
s) emerge in April and initially eat the bud
s of oak trees and young leaves inside them.
When fully grown, the larvae are between 25 to 29 mm (0.984251968503937 to 1.1 in) long with a body that can be yellow-green or darker shades of green. Other identifying characteristics in the larvae include pale legs and a head that is either black or has "a dark eye patch or a dark bar". The larvae feed and nest inside leaves which they have rolled or folded until they are ready to pupate in mid-June. The larvae pupate in cocoons which are found inside the rolled leaves or in "bark crevices".
After a week or two in the pupal stage, the adult moths emerge in late June or early July. The moths are small with a wingspan of 18 to 22 mm (0.708661417322835 to 0.866141732283465 in); the wings have a characteristic bell shape. Wing color can vary considerably. Forewings are a mixture of "creamy brown and gray" with gray found at the wingtips. The forewings have a darker band of brown or gray crossing obliquely. The adults mate and lay eggs to start the next generation. The moths produce only one generation annually.
In Texas
, the timing of the various stages of the life cycle starts earlier, and other differences in behavior are seen. Since spring comes earlier in Texas, the eggs are laid in May and hatch in mid-March of the next year. The larvae can be dislodged from trees and dangle beneath them from silk threads. Although the larvae can not harm humans, most people in Texas will avoid walking under oak trees to avoid them. The pupa
e of Oak leafrollers in Texas are also found on branch tips and weeds near the tree.
and adjoining portions of southeastern Canada
. It has been found in US states including Connecticut
, Massachusetts
, New York
, Pennsylvania
, Texas, Virginia
, and West Virginia
. They may have been introduced to the United Kingdom
. The oak leafrollers feed on all types of oak trees, but are especially prone to infestations in Northern Red Oak, Scarlet Oak, and species found on mountain and ridge tops such as Chestnut Oak
and White Oak. In addition to oaks, Archips semiferanus have been known to feed on witchhazel and apple
trees occasionally. In addition to the Oak leafrollers, other pest species will often feed on the same oak trees, including Croesia semipurpurana
and other Oak leaftiers.
The young larvae eat the buds and either destroy developing leaves, or cause leaves to develop with many holes in them. This can severely stress the tree's food reserves, and the older larvae can eat nearly all the remaining leaves, defoliating them. When trees are defoliated two or more years in a row, "extensive tree mortality" can result. Dead wood in affected trees is attacked by fungi such as the shoestring root fungus
and wood borers like the twolined chestnut borer.
Tiadaghton State Forest
in north central Pennsylvania was especially hard hit. In Pennsylvania
in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Oak leafrollers defoliated over 1045000 acres (422,896.9 ha) and in 1975 the Bureau of Forestry reported "The value of oak timber lost from the outbreak has now exceeded $100,000,000." Hikers in the Quehanna Wild Area in northern Pennsylvania were warned to be careful with campfires as the large numbers of dead oak trees on the Allegheny Plateau
from Oak leafroller were a fire hazard. In 2001 recent outbreaks had occurred in Cambria
, Cameron
, Clearfield
, Clinton
, and Warren
counties in Pennsylvania.
Until it was banned in the United States in 1972, the pesticide DDT
was used to control outbreaks. In 1974 the United States Forest Service tested four insecticides on Oak leafroller larvae as replacements for DDT and found that less than 1 microgram of each (bioethanomethrin, mexacarbate, phoxim
, and pyrethrin
s) caused 90 percent mortality. Natural predators that feed on the larvae include parasitic wasps and bird species such as mockingbird
s. The sex pheremones of the species have been studied as well.
Moth
A moth is an insect closely related to the butterfly, both being of the order Lepidoptera. Moths form the majority of this order; there are thought to be 150,000 to 250,000 different species of moth , with thousands of species yet to be described...
in the family
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
Tortricidae
Tortricidae
Tortricidae is a family of moths, commonly known as tortrix moths, in the order Lepidoptera. Tortricidae is a large family with over 9,400 species described, and is the sole member of the superfamily Tortricoidea. Many of these are economically important pests. Olethreutidae is a junior synonym...
, and one of several species of moth commonly known as Oak leafroller or Oak leaf roller. The larvae feed on the leaves of oak
Oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
trees in the Eastern United States
Eastern United States
The Eastern United States, the American East, or simply the East is traditionally defined as the states east of the Mississippi River. The first two tiers of states west of the Mississippi have traditionally been considered part of the West, but can be included in the East today; usually in...
and southeastern Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
and are a major defoliator
Defoliant
A defoliant is any chemical sprayed or dusted on plants to cause its leaves to fall off. A classic example of a highly toxic defoliant is Agent Orange, which the United States armed forces used abundantly to defoliate regions of Vietnam during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1970.Defoliants differ...
of oak trees, which can lead to tree mortality. In Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Oak leafrollers defoliated over 1045000 acres (422,896.9 ha) and over $100,000,000 of timber was lost.
Adult Archips semiferanus moths lay masses of 40 to 50 eggs on oak tree branches and rough bark in July; these overwinter and hatch the next spring. The larvae eat tree buds and young leaves, then roll leaves together with silk (hence the name). They nest and eat inside the rolled leaves, then pupa
Pupa
A pupa is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation. The pupal stage is found only in holometabolous insects, those that undergo a complete metamorphosis, going through four life stages; embryo, larva, pupa and imago...
te in the leaves or crevices in June. After a few weeks the adult moths emerge, mate and lay the next generation of eggs.
Taxonomy
Archips semiferanus was first described by WalkerFrancis Walker (entomologist)
Francis Walker was an English entomologist. He was one of the most prolific authors in entomology, and stirred controversy during his later life as his publications resulted in a huge number of junior synonyms....
in 1863, and is sometimes referred to as Archips semiferana, or as Capua semiferana. Both synonyms are also attributed to Walker. The larvae roll oak leaves together with silk, which gives the insect its common name.
Over 15 species of moths are referred to with the common name Oak leafroller, approximately three-fifths from the Tortricidae
Tortricidae
Tortricidae is a family of moths, commonly known as tortrix moths, in the order Lepidoptera. Tortricidae is a large family with over 9,400 species described, and is the sole member of the superfamily Tortricoidea. Many of these are economically important pests. Olethreutidae is a junior synonym...
family, but also from four other families. According to the United States Forest Service
United States Forest Service
The United States Forest Service is an agency of the United States Department of Agriculture that administers the nation's 155 national forests and 20 national grasslands, which encompass...
, Archips semiferanus is the "most important oak leafroller" of these species; other common Oak leafroller species such as Archips argyrosplilus and Choristoneura fractivittana
Choristoneura fractivittana
The Broken-banded Leafroller or Dark-banded Fireworm is a moth of the Tortricidae family.-Distribution:It is found from Quebec and Maine to Florida, west to Texas, north to western Canada.-Description:...
are commonly found on oak trees, but do not cause the damage that A. semiferanus does.
Description and life cycle
Oak leafroller moths lay their eggsEgg (biology)
An egg is an organic vessel in which an embryo first begins to develop. In most birds, reptiles, insects, molluscs, fish, and monotremes, an egg is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum, which is expelled from the body and permitted to develop outside the body until the developing...
in July each year, in groups of 40 to 50. The female covers the eggs with hairs from her body; they are deposited on "the base of large branches and rough bark patches on both tree trunks and limbs". The flat egg masses are white-gray in color and oval shaped, and are about 4.8 millimetre (0.188976377952756 in) across. The eggs overwinter and hatch in spring of the next year. The larva
Larva
A larva is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle...
e (or caterpillar
Caterpillar
Caterpillars are the larval form of members of the order Lepidoptera . They are mostly herbivorous in food habit, although some species are insectivorous. Caterpillars are voracious feeders and many of them are considered to be pests in agriculture...
s) emerge in April and initially eat the bud
Bud
In botany, a bud is an undeveloped or embryonic shoot and normally occurs in the axil of a leaf or at the tip of the stem. Once formed, a bud may remain for some time in a dormant condition, or it may form a shoot immediately. Buds may be specialized to develop flowers or short shoots, or may have...
s of oak trees and young leaves inside them.
When fully grown, the larvae are between 25 to 29 mm (0.984251968503937 to 1.1 in) long with a body that can be yellow-green or darker shades of green. Other identifying characteristics in the larvae include pale legs and a head that is either black or has "a dark eye patch or a dark bar". The larvae feed and nest inside leaves which they have rolled or folded until they are ready to pupate in mid-June. The larvae pupate in cocoons which are found inside the rolled leaves or in "bark crevices".
After a week or two in the pupal stage, the adult moths emerge in late June or early July. The moths are small with a wingspan of 18 to 22 mm (0.708661417322835 to 0.866141732283465 in); the wings have a characteristic bell shape. Wing color can vary considerably. Forewings are a mixture of "creamy brown and gray" with gray found at the wingtips. The forewings have a darker band of brown or gray crossing obliquely. The adults mate and lay eggs to start the next generation. The moths produce only one generation annually.
In Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...
, the timing of the various stages of the life cycle starts earlier, and other differences in behavior are seen. Since spring comes earlier in Texas, the eggs are laid in May and hatch in mid-March of the next year. The larvae can be dislodged from trees and dangle beneath them from silk threads. Although the larvae can not harm humans, most people in Texas will avoid walking under oak trees to avoid them. The pupa
Pupa
A pupa is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation. The pupal stage is found only in holometabolous insects, those that undergo a complete metamorphosis, going through four life stages; embryo, larva, pupa and imago...
e of Oak leafrollers in Texas are also found on branch tips and weeds near the tree.
Distribution, habitat, and behavior
Archips semiferanus is found in the eastern United StatesEastern United States
The Eastern United States, the American East, or simply the East is traditionally defined as the states east of the Mississippi River. The first two tiers of states west of the Mississippi have traditionally been considered part of the West, but can be included in the East today; usually in...
and adjoining portions of southeastern Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
. It has been found in US states including Connecticut
Connecticut
Connecticut is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, and the state of New York to the west and the south .Connecticut is named for the Connecticut River, the major U.S. river that approximately...
, Massachusetts
Massachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...
, New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
, Texas, Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...
, and West Virginia
West Virginia
West Virginia is a state in the Appalachian and Southeastern regions of the United States, bordered by Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Ohio to the northwest, Pennsylvania to the northeast and Maryland to the east...
. They may have been introduced to the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
. The oak leafrollers feed on all types of oak trees, but are especially prone to infestations in Northern Red Oak, Scarlet Oak, and species found on mountain and ridge tops such as Chestnut Oak
Chestnut oak
Quercus prinus , the chestnut oak, is a species of oak in the white oak group, Quercus sect. Quercus. It is native to the eastern United States, where it is one of the most important ridgetop trees from southern Maine southwest to central Mississippi, with an outlying northwestern population in...
and White Oak. In addition to oaks, Archips semiferanus have been known to feed on witchhazel and apple
Apple
The apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree, species Malus domestica in the rose family . It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and the most widely known of the many members of genus Malus that are used by humans. Apple grow on small, deciduous trees that blossom in the spring...
trees occasionally. In addition to the Oak leafrollers, other pest species will often feed on the same oak trees, including Croesia semipurpurana
Croesia semipurpurana
Acleris semipurpurana is a species in the moth family Tortricidae, and one of several species of moth commonly known as Oak leaftier or Oak leaf tier. The larvae feed on the leaves of oak trees in the Eastern United States and southeastern Canada. It can be a major cause of defoliation in oak trees...
and other Oak leaftiers.
The young larvae eat the buds and either destroy developing leaves, or cause leaves to develop with many holes in them. This can severely stress the tree's food reserves, and the older larvae can eat nearly all the remaining leaves, defoliating them. When trees are defoliated two or more years in a row, "extensive tree mortality" can result. Dead wood in affected trees is attacked by fungi such as the shoestring root fungus
Armillaria mellea
Armillaria mellea is a plant pathogen and a species of Honey fungus. It causes Armillaria root rot in many plant species. The mushrooms are edible but some people may be intolerant to them. The fungus produces mushrooms around the base of trees it has infected...
and wood borers like the twolined chestnut borer.
Tiadaghton State Forest
Tiadaghton State Forest
Tiadaghton State Forest is a Pennsylvania State Forest in Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry District #12. The forest is chiefly in western and southern Lycoming County, with small portions in Clinton, Potter, Tioga, and Union counties....
in north central Pennsylvania was especially hard hit. In Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Oak leafrollers defoliated over 1045000 acres (422,896.9 ha) and in 1975 the Bureau of Forestry reported "The value of oak timber lost from the outbreak has now exceeded $100,000,000." Hikers in the Quehanna Wild Area in northern Pennsylvania were warned to be careful with campfires as the large numbers of dead oak trees on the Allegheny Plateau
Allegheny Plateau
The Allegheny Plateau is a large dissected plateau area in western and central New York, northern and western Pennsylvania, northern and western West Virginia, and eastern Ohio...
from Oak leafroller were a fire hazard. In 2001 recent outbreaks had occurred in Cambria
Cambria County, Pennsylvania
Cambria County is a county located in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. It comprises the Johnstown, Pennsylvania, Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of 2010, the population was 143,679....
, Cameron
Cameron County, Pennsylvania
As of the census of 2000, there were 5,974 people, 2,465 households, and 1,624 families residing in the county. The population density was 15 people per square mile . There were 4,592 housing units at an average density of 12 per square mile...
, Clearfield
Clearfield County, Pennsylvania
Clearfield County is a county located in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. As of 2010, the population was 81,642.Clearfield County was created on March 26, 1804, from parts of Huntingdon and Lycoming Counties but was administered as part of Centre County until 1812...
, Clinton
Clinton County, Pennsylvania
As of the census of 2000, there were 37,914 people, 14,773 households, and 9,927 families residing in the county. The population density was 43 people per square mile . There were 18,166 housing units at an average density of 20 per square mile...
, and Warren
Warren County, Pennsylvania
Warren County is a county located in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. As of 2010, the population was 41,815. It was formed in 1800 from parts of Allegheny and Lycoming counties; attached to Crawford County until 1805 and then to Venango County until Warren was formally organized in 1819. Its county...
counties in Pennsylvania.
Until it was banned in the United States in 1972, the pesticide DDT
DDT
DDT is one of the most well-known synthetic insecticides. It is a chemical with a long, unique, and controversial history....
was used to control outbreaks. In 1974 the United States Forest Service tested four insecticides on Oak leafroller larvae as replacements for DDT and found that less than 1 microgram of each (bioethanomethrin, mexacarbate, phoxim
Phoxim
Phoxim is an organophosphate insecticide that is produced by the Bayer corporation. It is an analogous dimethyl ester and an organothiophosphate acaricide. It is allowed for use in limited applications in the European Union. It is banned for use on crops in the European Union since 22 December...
, and pyrethrin
Pyrethrin
The pyrethrins are a pair of natural organic compounds that have potent insecticidal activity. Pyrethrins are neurotoxins that attack the nervous systems of all insects. When present in amounts not fatal to insects, they still appear to have an insect repellent effect. Pyrethrins are gradually...
s) caused 90 percent mortality. Natural predators that feed on the larvae include parasitic wasps and bird species such as mockingbird
Mockingbird
Mockingbirds are a group of New World passerine birds from the Mimidae family. They are best known for the habit of some species mimicking the songs of other birds and the sounds of insects and amphibians, often loudly and in rapid succession. There are about 17 species in three genera...
s. The sex pheremones of the species have been studied as well.