Encyclopedia
Texas is a
state in both the
Southern and
Western region of the
United States of America. The state name derives from a word in the
Caddoan language of the Hasinai:
táysha,
tecas, or
tejas ; meaning "those who are friends," "friends," or "allies".
Texas declared its independence from
Mexico in 1836 and existed as the independent
Republic of Texas for nearly a decade. It joined the
United States in 1845 as the 28th state. With an area of 268,581 square miles and a population of 22.8 million, Texas is second to
Alaska in area, and second to
California in population.
History
Texas boasts that "
Six Flags" have flown over its soil: the
Fleur-de-lis of
France, and the national flags of
Spain,
Mexico, the
Republic of Texas, the
United States of America and the
Confederate States of America.
Native Americans in Texas
Native American tribes who once lived inside the boundaries of present-day Texas include
Apache,
Atakapan, Bidai,
Caddo,
Comanche,
Cherokee,
Kiowa,
Tonkawa, Wichita, and
Karankawa of
Galveston. Currently, there are three federally recognized Native American tribes which reside in Texas: the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas, the
Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas, and the Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo of Texas.
European and American settlement
On November 6, 1528, shipwrecked Spanish
conquistador Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca became the first known European in Texas; in 1537, he wrote about his experiences in a work called
La relación .
Prior to 1821, Texas was part of the Spanish dominions of
New Spain. Moses Austin bought 200,000 acres of land of his choice. In 1821, Texas became part of
Mexico and in 1824 became the northern section of Coahuila y Tejas. On January 3, 1823,
Stephen F. Austin began a colony of 300 American families along the
Brazos River. This group became known as the "Old Three Hundred." The "Conventions" of 1832 and 1833 responded to rising unrest at the policies of the ruling
Mexican government. On April 21, 1836, the Texans won their independence when they defeated the Mexican forces of Santa Anna at the
Battle of San Jacinto. A factor in the defeat of Santa Anna's army at
San Jacinto was the time the Texas Army got to gather itself, thanks to a small group of defenders at
The Alamo and General
Sam Houston's strategy of giving up land until he had rallied an army. Santa Anna was captured and signed the Treaties of Velasco, which gave Texas firm boundaries; Mexico repudiated the treaties, considered Texas a breakaway province, and vowed to reconquer it. However the Mexican political system was so unstable that it was never able to make good on its threats. Later in 1836, the Texans adopted a constitution that formally legalized slavery in Texas. The
Republic of Texas included all the area now included in the state of Texas, and additional unoccupied territory to the west and northwest. The
Mexican–American War followed, with decisive American victories. Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the rich cotton lands.
Civil War and Reconstruction
During the
American Civil War, the Texas legislature authorized secession from the
United States on February 1, 1861 and was accepted as a state by the provisional government of the
Confederate States of America on March 1, 1861.
Texas was most useful for supplying hardy soldiers for Confederate forces , and in cavalry. As a whole, Texas was mainly a "supply state" for the Confederate forces until mid 1863, when the Union capture of the
Mississippi River made large movements of men or cattle impossible. Texas regiments fought in every major battle throughout the war.
The last battle of the Civil War, The Battle of Palmito Ranch, was fought in Texas, on May 12, 1865, well after Lee's surrender on April 9, 1865 at
Appomattox Court House,
Virginia. Texas descended into near-anarchy during the two months between the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia and the assumption of authority by General
Gordon Granger, as Confederate forces demobilized or disbanded and government property passed into private hands through distribution or plunder.
Juneteenth commemorates the announcement of the
Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865 in
Galveston, Texas, by General Gordon Granger; nearly 1-1/2 years after the original announcement of January 1, 1863. On March 30, 1870 although Texas did not meet all the requirements, the
United States Congress readmitted Texas into the
Union.
Texas in Prosperity, Depression, and War: 1914–1945
The first major oil well in Texas was drilled at
Spindletop, the little hill south of Beaumont, on the morning of January 10, 1901. Other oil fields were later discovered nearby in
East Texas, in
West Texas and under the
Gulf of Mexico. The resulting “Oil Boom” permanently transformed the economy of Texas. Oil production eventually averaged three million barrels of oil per day at its peak in 1972.
The economy, which had experienced significant recovery since the Civil War, was dealt a double blow by
the Great Depression and the
Dust Bowl.
Immediately preceding and during
WWII, existing military bases in Texas were expanded and numerous new training bases were built, especially for Naval and Military Aviation training. Many Americans and allied troops came to Texas as part of the military mobilization.
Texas modernizes: 1945—
From 1950 through the 1960s, Texas modernized and dramatically expanded its system of higher education. Under the leadership of Governor
John B. Connally, the state produced a long-range plan for higher education, a more rational distribution of resources, and a central state apparatus that managed state institutions with greater efficiency. Because of these changes, Texas universities received federal funds for research and development during the John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson administrations.
Geography
The geography of Texas spans a wide range of features and timelines. Texas is the southernmost part of the
Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded
Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico. It is in the south-central part of the United States of America. It is considered to form part of the
U.S. South and also part of the
U.S. Southwest.
The
Rio Grande, Red River and Sabine River all provide natural state lines where Texas borders
Oklahoma on the north,
Louisiana and
Arkansas on the east, and
New Mexico and the
Mexican states of
Chihuahua,
Coahuila,
Nuevo León, and
Tamaulipas to the south.
By residents, the state is generally divided into North Texas,
East Texas,
South Texas, and
West Texas, but according to the
Texas Almanac, Texas has four major physical regions:
Gulf Coastal Plains,
Interior Lowlands,
Great Plains, and
The Basin and Range Province. This is the difference between
human geography and
physical geography.
Some regions of Texas are associated with the South more than the Southwest , while other regions share more similarities with the Southwest than the South . The
Texas Panhandle and
South Plains regions don't fit either category; they seem to have more in common with parts of the
Midwestern United States. The size of Texas prohibits easy categorization of the entire state wholly in any recognized region of the United States; geographic, economic, and even cultural diversity between regions of the state preclude treating Texas as a region in its own right.
Geology
Texas is the southernmost part of the
Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded
Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico. It is mostly
sedimentary rocks, with east Texas underlain by a Cretaceous and younger sequence of sediments, the trace of ancient shorelines east and south until the active continental margin of the
Gulf of Mexico is met. This sequence is built atop the subsided crest of the
Appalachian Mountains–
Ouachita Mountains–Marathon Mountains zone of
Pennsylvanian continental collision, which collapsed when
rifting in Jurassic time opened the Gulf of Mexico. West from this
orogenic crest, which is buried beneath the
Dallas–
Waco–
Austin–
San Antonio trend, the sediments are Permian and Triassic in age.
Oil is found in the Cretaceous sediments in the east, the Permian sediments in the west, and along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas
continental shelf. A few exposures of Precambrian
igneous and metamorphic rocks are found in the central and western parts of the state, and Oligocene
volcanic rocks are found in far west Texas, in the
Big Bend area. A blanket of Miocene sediments known as the Ogallala formation in the western high plains region is an important
aquifer. Texas has no active or dormant volcanoes and few earthquakes, being situated far from an active
plate tectonic boundary.
Climate
The large size of the state of Texas and its location at the intersection of several climate zones gives the state highly variable weather. Tornadoes often occur in the months of March-July throughout the state. The Panhandle of the state is cooler in the winter than North Texas or the gulf coast. Different regions of Texas experience vastly different precipitation patterns: El Paso averages as little as 7.8" of rain per year while the average annual precipitation is 59" in
Orange, Texas. Moderate snowfall often falls in the winter months in the north. Maximum temperatures in the summer months average from the 80s °F in the mountains of West Texas and on
Galveston Island to around 100 °F in the
Rio Grande Valley. Nighttime summer temperatures range from the upper 50s °F in the West Texas mountains to 80 °F in
Galveston.
Law and government
State law and government
Republican
Rick Perry has served as Governor of Texas since December 2000, when
George W. Bush vacated the office to assume the
Presidency. Two Republicans represent Texas in the U.S. Senate:
Kay Bailey Hutchison and
John Cornyn . Texas has 32 representatives in the U.S. House of Representatives: 21 Republicans and 11 Democrats.
The Texas Constitution, adopted in 1876, is the second oldest state constitution still in effect. As with many state constitutions, it explicitly provides for the separation of powers and incorporates its bill of rights directly into the text of the constitution . The bill of rights is considerably lengthier and more detailed than the federal
Bill of Rights, and includes some provisions unique to Texas.
The executive branch consists of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Land Commissioner, Attorney General, Agriculture Commissioner, the three-member Texas Railroad Commission, the State Board of Education, and the Secretary of State. The comptroller decides if expected state income is sufficient to cover the proposed state budget. Except for the secretary of state—who is appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Senate—each of these officials is elected . There are also many state agencies and numerous boards and commissions. Partly because of many elected officials, the governor's powers are quite limited in comparison to other state governors or the U.S. President. In popular lore and belief the lieutenant governor, who heads the Senate and appoints its committees, has more power than the governor. The governor commands the state militia and can veto bills passed by the Legislature and call special sessions of the Legislature . The governor also appoints members of various executive boards and fills judicial vacancies between elections.
The
Legislature of Texas, like the legislature of every other state except
Nebraska, is bicameral . The House of Representatives has 150 members, while the Senate has 31. The speaker of the house, currently Tom Craddick leads the House, and the lieutenant governor leads the state Senate. The Legislature meets in regular session only once every two years. The Legislature cannot call itself into special session; only the governor may call a special session, and may call as many sessions as often as desired.
The judicial system of Texas has a reputation as one of the most complex in the United States, with many layers and many overlapping jurisdictions. Texas has two courts of last resort: the Texas Supreme Court, which hears civil cases, and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals. Except in the case of some municipal benches, partisan elections choose all of the judges at all levels of the judiciary; the governor fills vacancies by appointment.
County government
Texas has a total of 254
counties, by far the most counties of any state. Each county is run by a commissioners court consisting of four elected commissioners and a county judge elected from all the voters of the county. County government is similar to the "weak" mayor-council system; the county judge has no veto authority, but votes along with the other commissioners.
In smaller counties, the county judge actually does perform judicial duties, but in larger counties the judge's role is limited to serving on the commissioners court. Certain officials, such as the sheriff and tax collector, are elected separately by the voters and state law specifies their salaries, but the commissioners court determines their office budgets.
All county elections are partisan.
Counties do not have home rule authority; their powers and limits are specifically defined by the state government.
Unlike other states, Texas does not allow for consolidated city-county governments, nor does it have a form of metropolitan government . Cities and counties are permitted to enter "interlocal agreements" to share services .
Municipal government
Texas does not have townships—areas within a county are either incorporated or unincorporated. Incorporated areas are part of a city, though the city may contract with the county for needed services. Unincorporated areas are not part of a city; in these areas the county has authority for law enforcement and road maintenance.
Cities are classified as either "general law" or "home rule". A city may elect home rule status once it exceeds 5,000 population and the voters agree to home rule. Otherwise, it is classified as general law and has very limited powers.
Municipal elections in Texas are nonpartisan in the sense that candidates do not appear on the ballot on party lines, and do not run as party tickets. However, a candidate's party affiliation is usually known or can be discerned with minimal effort . In some instances, an informal citizen's group will support a slate of candidates that it desires to see elected . However, each candidate must be voted on individually.
School and special districts
In addition to cities and counties, Texas has numerous special districts. The most common is the independent school district, which has a board of trustees that is independent of any other governing authority. School district boundaries are not generally aligned with city or county boundaries; it is common for a school district to cover one or more counties or for a large city to be served by several school districts.
Other special districts include Groundwater Conservation Districts , river authorities, water supply districts , public hospitals, road districts, and community colleges.
As with municipal elections in Texas, board members or trustees are elected on a nonpartisan basis or may be appointed.
Politics
Regardless of party affiliation, Texas politics are dominated by fiscal and social conservatism.
The Texan political climate is currently dominated by the Republican Party, which has strong majorities in the Texas Senate and House of Representatives. Every executive branch official elected statewide is Republican, as is every member of Texas's two courts of last resort; no Democrat has won a statewide election since 1994. The majority of the state's delegation to the U.S. House of Representatives is Republican, as are both U.S. Senators. A notable exception to this trend is the Travis County District Attorney,
Ronnie Earle, a Democrat elected by the people of
Austin who has served since 1978 with statewide authority and responsibility for legally prosecuting political mischief. Ronnie Earle is nationally known for leveling charges against Senator Kay Bailey Hutchinson, which were dismissed in court, and against Representative Tom DeLay, which have not yet been resolved. The Travis County District Attorney is uniquely empowered by the Texas Constitution; most states grant this authority to the more broadly elected position of Attorney General.
Note: The congressional districts in Texas were redrawn in 2003 by the Republican-dominated legislature. Districts are usually drawn after the national census every 10 years, but an impasse in the Texas Legislature resulted in the districts being drawn by the courts in 2001. The legislature, with controversial help from U.S. Congressman Tom DeLay, redrew the districts after the Republicans gained a larger share of the legislature. A court challenge to the legality of the non-Census-timed redistricting was upheld by the Republican-dominated Texas Supreme Court; the
United States Supreme Court remanded the map to a three-judge federal panel to redraw the 23rd District, which it ruled unconstitutionally diluted Hispanic voting strength in violation of the
Voting Rights Act. The court otherwise upheld the rest of the districts on the map in question and noted that after a map meets all legal rules and laws, one drawn by the state's elected officials is prefered over one drawn by federal judges. The Democratic challengers of the map had pointed to an early 1990's map drawn by federal judges as one that should be kept in use.
Like other Southern states, Texas historically was a one-party state of the
Democratic Party. The Democrats controlled a majority in the
Texas House and in the state's Congressional delegation until the 2002 and 2004 elections, respectively. One of the most famous Texans was a Democrat:
Lyndon Baines Johnson served in the
U.S. House of Representatives, the
U.S. Senate, and as
vice-president and president of the United States. Another famous Texas Democrat was longtime speaker of the House,
Sam Rayburn.
Law enforcement
The justice system in Texas has a reputation for strict sentencing. According to the Prison Policy Initiative, of the 21 counties in the United States where more than a fifth of the residents are prison inmates, 10 are in Texas.
Texas leads the nation in executions by far, with 377 executions from 1976 to 2006. The second-highest ranking state is
Virginia, with 94. Only capital murder is eligible for the death penalty. Prior to 2005, the alternate sentence was life with the possibility of parole after 40 calendar years; a 2005 law change changed the alternate sentence to life without parole.
A 2002
Houston Chronicle is a daily newspaper [i] in Houston, Texas [i], United States [i]. ...
poll of Texans found that when asked "Do you support the death penalty?", 69.1 percent responded that they did, 21.9 percent did not support, and 9.1 percent were not sure or gave no answer.
Well-known for their role in the history of Texas law enforcement, the
Texas Rangers continue today to provide special law enforcement services to the state.
Military
Texas is home to numerous major military installations, with bases in nearly every corner of the state. All the services have operational and training missions in Texas, despite the lack of a major
United States Marine Corps installation. In addition to active duty forces, there are a wide variety of reserve units and guard units. The guard units are collectively known as the "Texas Military Forces."
The Texas Military Forces includes the Texas Army
National Guard and the Texas Air
National Guard and the
Texas State Guard, the state militia. The headquarters of the Texas Military Forces is at Camp Mabry in
Austin.
Congressional districts
Economy
In 2005 Texas had a
gross state product of $982.4 billion, the second highest in America after
California. Gross state product per capita as of 2005 was $42,899. Texas's growth is often attributed to the availability of jobs, the low cost of housing , the lack of a personal
state income tax, low taxation and limited regulation of
business, a geographic location in the center of the country, limited government , favorable climate in many areas of the state, and vast, plentiful supplies of oil and natural gas. Texas has 4.6 billion barrels of proven crude
oil reserves.
Texas remained largely rural until
World War II, with
cattle ranching, oil, and
agriculture as its main industries. Cattle ranching was never Texas's chief industry – before the oil boom back to the period of the first Anglo settlers, the chief industry was
cotton farming .
In 1926,
San Antonio had over 120,000 people, the largest population of any city in Texas. After
World War II, Texas became increasingly industrialized. Its economy today relies largely on information technology, oil and natural gas, fuel processing, electric power, agriculture, and manufacturing. The major segment of the economy depends largely on the region involved – for example, the
timber industry is a major portion of the
East Texas economy but a non-factor elsewhere, while aerospace and defense manufacturing is primarily centered within the
Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex.
The state has two major economic centers:
Dallas and
Houston. Houston stands at the center of the petrochemical and biomedical research trades while Dallas functions as the center of the aerospace/defense manufacturing and
