Water resources in Mexico
Encyclopedia
Water resources in many parts of Mexico are under stress, especially in the arid northwest and central regions where most of the population lives and most of the economic activities are located. The country has put in place a system of water resources management that includes both central (federal) and decentralized (basin and local) institutions.
Despite many achievements, the water resources
sector in Mexico
still faces some challenges, including: (i) increasing water scarcity, (ii) over-exploitation of freshwater resources, especially groundwater, (ii) deteriorating water quality, (iii) lack of financial sustainability of the water sector, (iv) modernizing water supply and sanitation services, (v) improve competitiveness and efficiency of irrigation, (vi) strengthen water institutions, (vii) adapt to climate change impacts, especially droughts and floods.
The 1934 Código Agrario, promulgated during the Cárdenas
administration (1934-1940), granted the federal government sweeping powers to define the “public interest” to which water could be harnessed. By virtue of such legislation, between the 1930s and 1970s, the ejido
sector and rural communities were subject to direct federal control over water. Private landowners, on the other hand, enjoyed the benefits of federally subsidized irrigation infrastructure and guaranteed market prices. Over time, large landowners became highly capitalized, while small farmers, by the 1970s, were suffering from the effects of water monopolies.
In the 1970s, the Mexican government entered into a tripartite agreement with the Wold Bank, and the United Nations Development Program to prepare the 1975 National Water Plan (NWP) which identified the need to enact a National Water Law (NWL) and a National Water Authority as well as decentralize responsibilities and promote water user participation in operational and maintenance (O&M).
The NWP spurred a significant institutional development and infrastructural achievements. In 1983 the federal government transferred the responsibility for water supply and sanitation to municipalities and states. The Mexican Institute of Water Technology (IMTA) was established in 1986, and the National Water Commission (CONAGUA, sometimes also called CNA in 1989). Also in 1989 the first Basin Council in Lerma
-Chapala
was created, incorporating water users from multiple sectors.
During the 1990s, Mexico's groundwater
boom took place with rapid development and pumping of aquifers for combined agricultural, urban, and industrial demand. Also the federal government (CNA) decentralized responsibility for large irrigation infrastructure to autonomous agencies (irrigation districts).
In 1992, Mexico adopted a National Water Law, which contained specific provisions for the role of the CNA, the structure and functioning of river basin councils, public participation in water management, etc.
In 1993, the Cutzamala system was completed, becoming one of the largest pumping schemes in the world, pumping 19 cubic meters of water per second into the Mexico City Metropolitan area
, over a difference of altitude of 940m and a distance of 162 km.
In 1997 the first technical groundwater committee was created to manage an overexploited aquifer in the state of Guanajuato
.
With the 2004 Revision of the National Water Law, the thirteen decentralized CNA regions would become basin organizations serving as the technical arm of more broad-based basin councils that incorporate civil society interests including the private sector and citizens’ groups.
The largest river on the Pacific coast is the Balsas River
(24 BCM/year) and the largest river on the Atlantic Coast is the Grijalva
-Usumacinta flowing from Guatemala to Mexico (115 BCM.year). The longest river (2018km) and also the river with the largest basin (226,000 km²) is the Rio Bravo, called Rio Grande
in the United States.
Water is abundant in the relatively sparsely populated South and scarce in the more densely populated Center and North of the country. The Center and the North of the country where 77% of Mexico’s population lives and 85% of its GDP is generated dispose of only 32% of the country’s renewable water resources.
Rainfall is highly variable and droughts are frequent. The states most affected by drought, as measured by the agricultural area affected by drought, are Chihuahua, Mexico and Zacatecas
.
There are no estimates on the Minimum Environmental Flow Requirements in Mexico. Environmental demand thus is de facto absent from the official water balances in Mexico.
Hydropower
is a major source of electricity generation in Mexico with an installed capacity of 10.3 Gigawatt or 22% of the installed capacity in 2005.
See also: Electricity sector in Mexico
There are 667 large dams with a storage capacity of 150 BCM and an actual storage of 70 BCM in 2005. The largest dam by storage volume is the La Angostura Dam on the Grijalva River
in the state of Chiapas
with a storage volume of more than 10 BCM.
(86% of resources) and in Sonora
in the Northeast (79% of resources).
CNA has defined 653 “aquifer
s” out of which 104 were categorized as overexploited in 2005. Total groundwater use was 27.5 BCM/year, while recharge is estimated at 77BCM/year. Out of the country’s 13 administrative hydrological regions, in 4 regions abstraction exceeds recharge: Baja California, Northeast, North-Center and the Mexico Valley.
) published in 2000, which was part of the US Global Change Research Program (Global Change Research Act
), the National Ecology Institute of the National University of Mexico (UNAM) carried out a study on Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability in Mexico for the Mexican Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. According to the study Mexico will experience less or normal summer precipitation and increased precipitation during winter. The report also details predicted impact by regions. For example, in the Lerma-Chapala basin the predicted increase in temperature coupled with a decrease in rainfall could result in severe water supply shortages, exacerbated by growth in population and industries. In northern areas and regions with large populations, especially in Central Mexico erosion and drought severity will increase with higher temperatures and rainfall variations in these arid and semi arid regions.
Researchers have also predicted that tensions between Mexico and the US over shared water resources could increase as climate change increases water scarcity in both countries.
(COD). No other water quality indicators are used to classify water bodies and no water quality data using other pollutants as parameters are readily available.
Surface water bodies in Mexico are classified in five different ambient water quality classes, using BOD and COD as indicators. In 2005 surface water quality was measured in 509 sites using these parameters.
Using BOD as an indicator, in 2005 5% of water bodies were classified as highly contaminated (BOC > 120 mg/l) and 10% as contaminated.(BOD > 30 mg/l). If COD is used as an indicator, the respective shares increase to 12% for highly contaminated (COD > 200) and 26% for contaminated (COD > 40) waterbodies.
The highest levels of contamination are found in the hydrological regions of the Northeast, Balsas, Mexico Valley and Lerma-Chapala.
Pipeline that supplies a large share of the water used in the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City. CNA also owns and operates most dams in Mexico and operates the country’s water monitoring network.
Through the 2004 revision of the National Water Law two new entities were formally created: Basin Councils (Consejos de Cuenca) and Basin Agencies (Organismos de Cuenca). The basin councils consist of representatives of the federal government, state and municipal governments, as well as at least 50% representatives of water users and NGOs. The basin councils are not decision-making bodies, but are consultative bodies. There are 26 basin councils. The basin agencies, on the other hand, are the regional administrative branches of the CNA, which retains the ultimate decision-making power.
Obviously other entities such as the Ministry of Finance, the Federal Congress, State Governments and State Congresses, as well as the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources are important decision-makers in the sector.
CONAGUA is the highest institution for water resource management in Mexico, including water policy, water rights, planning, irrigation and drainage development, water supply and sanitation, and emergency and disaster management (with an emphasis on flooding). CONAGUA is formally under the authority of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (Secretaria del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales – SEMARNAT) but it enjoys considelable de facto autonomy. It employs 17,000 professionals and has 13 regional offices and 32 state offices.
The CEAs are autonomous entities that usually are under the authority of the State Ministry of Public Works. Their attributions are different among states and can include water resources management, irrigation and the provision of water supply and sanitation services.
The recently created Basin Authorities (BAs) will develop from the 13 existing Regional Offices of CONAGUA and are expected to be responsible for formulating regional policy, designing programs to implement such policies, conducting studies to estimate the value of the financial resources generated within their boundaries (water user fees and service fees), recommending specific rates for water user fees and collecting them.
Basin Councils (BCs) are expected to guide, together with CONAGUA, BAs work. There are a total of 25 BCs that have been established with the same basin boundaries as the BAs, but in some cases with two or more BCs within the area of one BA. Some states are located entirely within the area of one BC. In other cases, one state is divided between two or more BCs. In the latter case, the state participates in all of the BCs within its territory.
The NWL also introduced a Water Financing System (Sistema Finaciero del Agua – SFA). CONAGUA will create together with the Ministry of Finance appropriate instruments to determine funding sources, spending guidelines, cost recovery, settling of accounts and management indicators.
Water resource pricing through abstraction charges is carried out on the basis of the Federal Rights Law, which classifies the country in nine water scarcity zones. In zones with the highest water scarcity, generally in the North, abstraction charges are highest. However agriculture as the major water user is exempt from the abstraction charge and the charge only paid by industry and municipal users. This considerably limits the effectiveness of the charge as a tool for water demand management, although it has been very effective at mobilizing financial resources. Total revenues from abstraction charges were 6.5bn Pesos in 2005, accounting for 80% of CNA revenues.
, the Tijuana River
and the Rio Bravo/Rio Grande
is defined in the Treaty of Washington between the USA and Mexico signed on February 3, 1944.
Despite many achievements, the water resources
Water resources
Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water....
sector in Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
still faces some challenges, including: (i) increasing water scarcity, (ii) over-exploitation of freshwater resources, especially groundwater, (ii) deteriorating water quality, (iii) lack of financial sustainability of the water sector, (iv) modernizing water supply and sanitation services, (v) improve competitiveness and efficiency of irrigation, (vi) strengthen water institutions, (vii) adapt to climate change impacts, especially droughts and floods.
History and recent developments
Mexico has a long and well established tradition on water resources management (WRM) which started in the 1930s when the country began investing heavily in water storage facilities and groundwater development to expand irrigation and supply water to the rapidly expanding population.The 1934 Código Agrario, promulgated during the Cárdenas
Lázaro Cárdenas
Lázaro Cárdenas del Río was President of Mexico from 1934 to 1940.-Early life:Lázaro Cárdenas was born on May 21, 1895 in a lower-middle class family in the village of Jiquilpan, Michoacán. He supported his family from age 16 after the death of his father...
administration (1934-1940), granted the federal government sweeping powers to define the “public interest” to which water could be harnessed. By virtue of such legislation, between the 1930s and 1970s, the ejido
Ejido
The ejido system is a process whereby the government promotes the use of communal land shared by the people of the community. This use of community land was a common practice during the time of Aztec rule in Mexico...
sector and rural communities were subject to direct federal control over water. Private landowners, on the other hand, enjoyed the benefits of federally subsidized irrigation infrastructure and guaranteed market prices. Over time, large landowners became highly capitalized, while small farmers, by the 1970s, were suffering from the effects of water monopolies.
In the 1970s, the Mexican government entered into a tripartite agreement with the Wold Bank, and the United Nations Development Program to prepare the 1975 National Water Plan (NWP) which identified the need to enact a National Water Law (NWL) and a National Water Authority as well as decentralize responsibilities and promote water user participation in operational and maintenance (O&M).
The NWP spurred a significant institutional development and infrastructural achievements. In 1983 the federal government transferred the responsibility for water supply and sanitation to municipalities and states. The Mexican Institute of Water Technology (IMTA) was established in 1986, and the National Water Commission (CONAGUA, sometimes also called CNA in 1989). Also in 1989 the first Basin Council in Lerma
Lerma River
The Lerma Santiago River is Mexico's second longest river. It is a river in west-central Mexico that begins in Mexican Plateau at an altitude over above sea level, and ends where it empties into Lake Chapala, Mexico's largest lake, near Guadalajara, Jalisco...
-Chapala
Chapala
Chapala is a city and municipality in the central Mexican state of Jalisco, located on the north shore of Lake Chapala, Mexico's largest freshwater lake. According to the 2005 census, its population is 43,345 for the municipality.-Geography:...
was created, incorporating water users from multiple sectors.
During the 1990s, Mexico's groundwater
Groundwater
Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock...
boom took place with rapid development and pumping of aquifers for combined agricultural, urban, and industrial demand. Also the federal government (CNA) decentralized responsibility for large irrigation infrastructure to autonomous agencies (irrigation districts).
In 1992, Mexico adopted a National Water Law, which contained specific provisions for the role of the CNA, the structure and functioning of river basin councils, public participation in water management, etc.
In 1993, the Cutzamala system was completed, becoming one of the largest pumping schemes in the world, pumping 19 cubic meters of water per second into the Mexico City Metropolitan area
Mexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
, over a difference of altitude of 940m and a distance of 162 km.
In 1997 the first technical groundwater committee was created to manage an overexploited aquifer in the state of Guanajuato
Guanajuato
Guanajuato officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Guanajuato is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 46 municipalities and its capital city is Guanajuato....
.
With the 2004 Revision of the National Water Law, the thirteen decentralized CNA regions would become basin organizations serving as the technical arm of more broad-based basin councils that incorporate civil society interests including the private sector and citizens’ groups.
Availability
Total internal renewable water resources are 457 billion cubic meters (BCM)/year, plus 49 BCM/year inflows from neighboring countries (average 1977-2001).The largest river on the Pacific coast is the Balsas River
Balsas River
The Balsas River is a major river of south-central Mexico. The basin flows through the states of Puebla, Morelos, Guerrero, and Mexico. The river empties into the Pacific Ocean at Mangrove Point, adjacent to the city of Lázaro Cárdenas, Michoacán...
(24 BCM/year) and the largest river on the Atlantic Coast is the Grijalva
Grijalva River
Grijalva River, formerly known as Tabasco River. is a 480 km long river in southeastern Mexico. It is named after Juan de Grijalva who visited the area in 1518. The river rises in Chiapas highlands and flows from Chiapas to the state of Tabasco through the Sumidero Canyon into the Bay of...
-Usumacinta flowing from Guatemala to Mexico (115 BCM.year). The longest river (2018km) and also the river with the largest basin (226,000 km²) is the Rio Bravo, called Rio Grande
Rio Grande
The Rio Grande is a river that flows from southwestern Colorado in the United States to the Gulf of Mexico. Along the way it forms part of the Mexico – United States border. Its length varies as its course changes...
in the United States.
Water is abundant in the relatively sparsely populated South and scarce in the more densely populated Center and North of the country. The Center and the North of the country where 77% of Mexico’s population lives and 85% of its GDP is generated dispose of only 32% of the country’s renewable water resources.
Rainfall is highly variable and droughts are frequent. The states most affected by drought, as measured by the agricultural area affected by drought, are Chihuahua, Mexico and Zacatecas
Zacatecas
Zacatecas officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Zacatecas is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 58 municipalities and its capital city is Zacatecas....
.
Use
Total water withdrawals for consumptive use are 78 BCM/year. The largest consumptive water user is agriculture (78%), followed by domestic use (17%) and industry (5%).There are no estimates on the Minimum Environmental Flow Requirements in Mexico. Environmental demand thus is de facto absent from the official water balances in Mexico.
Hydropower
Hydropower
Hydropower, hydraulic power, hydrokinetic power or water power is power that is derived from the force or energy of falling water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. Since ancient times, hydropower has been used for irrigation and the operation of various mechanical devices, such as...
is a major source of electricity generation in Mexico with an installed capacity of 10.3 Gigawatt or 22% of the installed capacity in 2005.
See also: Electricity sector in Mexico
Electricity sector in Mexico
The energy sector in Mexico has certain limitations in terms of private participation and foreign companies are allowed to operate in the country only through specific service contracts. As required by the Constitution, the electricity sector is federally owned, with the Federal Electricity...
Storage
There are seven major lakes in Mexico. By far the largest and most important is the Chapala Lake in Central Mexico with an area of 1,116 km² and a storage capacity of more than 8 BCM. Actual storage volume varies between 1 and 10 BCM since measurements began in 1935. The lake is only 4 to 6 m deep.There are 667 large dams with a storage capacity of 150 BCM and an actual storage of 70 BCM in 2005. The largest dam by storage volume is the La Angostura Dam on the Grijalva River
Grijalva River
Grijalva River, formerly known as Tabasco River. is a 480 km long river in southeastern Mexico. It is named after Juan de Grijalva who visited the area in 1518. The river rises in Chiapas highlands and flows from Chiapas to the state of Tabasco through the Sumidero Canyon into the Bay of...
in the state of Chiapas
Chiapas
Chiapas officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Chiapas is one of the 31 states that, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 118 municipalities and its capital city is Tuxtla Gutierrez. Other important cites in Chiapas include San Cristóbal de las...
with a storage volume of more than 10 BCM.
Water Balance
Overall, only 18% of water resources in Mexico are withdrawn for consumptive use. However, there is water stress in several regions of the country. The highest pressure on water resources is encountered around Mexico City (120% of resources), in Baja CaliforniaBaja California
Baja California officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is both the northernmost and westernmost state of Mexico. Before becoming a state in 1953, the area was known as the North...
(86% of resources) and in Sonora
Sonora
Sonora officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 72 municipalities; the capital city is Hermosillo....
in the Northeast (79% of resources).
CNA has defined 653 “aquifer
Aquifer
An aquifer is a wet underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials from which groundwater can be usefully extracted using a water well. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology...
s” out of which 104 were categorized as overexploited in 2005. Total groundwater use was 27.5 BCM/year, while recharge is estimated at 77BCM/year. Out of the country’s 13 administrative hydrological regions, in 4 regions abstraction exceeds recharge: Baja California, Northeast, North-Center and the Mexico Valley.
Water balance and climate change
In the context of the US National Assessment of the Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change (National Assessment on Climate ChangeNational Assessment on Climate Change
The National Climate Assessment is a large-scale national project that is conducted under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990, and is one of the many activities of the US Global Change Research Program , a program which coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in...
) published in 2000, which was part of the US Global Change Research Program (Global Change Research Act
Global Change Research Act
The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues. It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental, economic, health and safety consequences of climate change; however, the first of these, the National...
), the National Ecology Institute of the National University of Mexico (UNAM) carried out a study on Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability in Mexico for the Mexican Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. According to the study Mexico will experience less or normal summer precipitation and increased precipitation during winter. The report also details predicted impact by regions. For example, in the Lerma-Chapala basin the predicted increase in temperature coupled with a decrease in rainfall could result in severe water supply shortages, exacerbated by growth in population and industries. In northern areas and regions with large populations, especially in Central Mexico erosion and drought severity will increase with higher temperatures and rainfall variations in these arid and semi arid regions.
Researchers have also predicted that tensions between Mexico and the US over shared water resources could increase as climate change increases water scarcity in both countries.
Water quality and pollution
Information on the water quality of Mexico's rivers published by the National Water Commission is limited to only two parameters, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen DemandChemical oxygen demand
In environmental chemistry, the chemical oxygen demand test is commonly used to indirectly measure the amount of organic compounds in water. Most applications of COD determine the amount of organic pollutants found in surface water or wastewater, making COD a useful measure of water quality...
(COD). No other water quality indicators are used to classify water bodies and no water quality data using other pollutants as parameters are readily available.
Surface water bodies in Mexico are classified in five different ambient water quality classes, using BOD and COD as indicators. In 2005 surface water quality was measured in 509 sites using these parameters.
Using BOD as an indicator, in 2005 5% of water bodies were classified as highly contaminated (BOC > 120 mg/l) and 10% as contaminated.(BOD > 30 mg/l). If COD is used as an indicator, the respective shares increase to 12% for highly contaminated (COD > 200) and 26% for contaminated (COD > 40) waterbodies.
The highest levels of contamination are found in the hydrological regions of the Northeast, Balsas, Mexico Valley and Lerma-Chapala.
Legal Framework
The main law governing water resources management in Mexico is the National Water Law of 1992, revised on April 29, 2004. According to the Law key functions in the sector are the responsibility of the federal government, through the National Water Commission (CNA or Conagua). CNA’s mission is to “manage and preserve national water resources, with the participation of the society, to reach a sustainable use of the resource.” CNA has a staff of 16,000 and an annual budget of 18.6bn Pesos in 2005 (more than US$ 1.5bn) and is considered to be one of the most powerful federal agencies in Mexico. CNA administrates major federal programs to support investments in water supply and sanitation as well as in irrigation. It also directly manages certain key hydraulic facilities such as the CutzamalaCutzamala
Cutzamala may refer to:*Cutzamala de Pinzón, municipality and township in the state of Guerrero, Mexico*Cutzamala , a pre-Columbian Mesoamerican archaeological site, a fortified garrison settlement in the Postclassic-era Tarascan state...
Pipeline that supplies a large share of the water used in the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City. CNA also owns and operates most dams in Mexico and operates the country’s water monitoring network.
Through the 2004 revision of the National Water Law two new entities were formally created: Basin Councils (Consejos de Cuenca) and Basin Agencies (Organismos de Cuenca). The basin councils consist of representatives of the federal government, state and municipal governments, as well as at least 50% representatives of water users and NGOs. The basin councils are not decision-making bodies, but are consultative bodies. There are 26 basin councils. The basin agencies, on the other hand, are the regional administrative branches of the CNA, which retains the ultimate decision-making power.
Obviously other entities such as the Ministry of Finance, the Federal Congress, State Governments and State Congresses, as well as the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources are important decision-makers in the sector.
Institutional framework
Three groups of institutions have been assigned with the main responsibilities for WRM: (i) the National Water Commission (Comision Nacional del Agua –CONAGUA), at the federal level; (ii) Water Commissions (Comisiones Estatales del Agua – CEAs), at the State level; and (iii) basin authorities and basin councils.CONAGUA is the highest institution for water resource management in Mexico, including water policy, water rights, planning, irrigation and drainage development, water supply and sanitation, and emergency and disaster management (with an emphasis on flooding). CONAGUA is formally under the authority of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (Secretaria del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales – SEMARNAT) but it enjoys considelable de facto autonomy. It employs 17,000 professionals and has 13 regional offices and 32 state offices.
The CEAs are autonomous entities that usually are under the authority of the State Ministry of Public Works. Their attributions are different among states and can include water resources management, irrigation and the provision of water supply and sanitation services.
The recently created Basin Authorities (BAs) will develop from the 13 existing Regional Offices of CONAGUA and are expected to be responsible for formulating regional policy, designing programs to implement such policies, conducting studies to estimate the value of the financial resources generated within their boundaries (water user fees and service fees), recommending specific rates for water user fees and collecting them.
Basin Councils (BCs) are expected to guide, together with CONAGUA, BAs work. There are a total of 25 BCs that have been established with the same basin boundaries as the BAs, but in some cases with two or more BCs within the area of one BA. Some states are located entirely within the area of one BC. In other cases, one state is divided between two or more BCs. In the latter case, the state participates in all of the BCs within its territory.
Government strategy
The 2004 amended National Water Law (NWL) aims to restructure CONAGUA key functions through the transfer of responsibilities from the central level to subnational entities: the basin agencies (Organismos de Cuenca – BA) and Basin Councils (Consejos de Cuenca – BC). BA and BCs are expected to play an increasing role in the sector limiting CONAGUA’s role to the administration of the NWL, the conduct of national water policy, and planning, supervision, support and regulatory activities.The NWL also introduced a Water Financing System (Sistema Finaciero del Agua – SFA). CONAGUA will create together with the Ministry of Finance appropriate instruments to determine funding sources, spending guidelines, cost recovery, settling of accounts and management indicators.
Instruments: Permits and pricing
Two key instruments of water resources management at the disposal of the CNA are permits and abstraction charges. However, the effectiveness of permits is reduced by the fact that the total volume of water for which permits have been granted exceeds total water availability in some regions. A total of 344,473 permits were registered in 2005 in the public register of water rights established in 1992. The total volume of water for which permits were granted is 76 BCM/year, excluding permits for hydropower, which is a non-consumptive use of water.Water resource pricing through abstraction charges is carried out on the basis of the Federal Rights Law, which classifies the country in nine water scarcity zones. In zones with the highest water scarcity, generally in the North, abstraction charges are highest. However agriculture as the major water user is exempt from the abstraction charge and the charge only paid by industry and municipal users. This considerably limits the effectiveness of the charge as a tool for water demand management, although it has been very effective at mobilizing financial resources. Total revenues from abstraction charges were 6.5bn Pesos in 2005, accounting for 80% of CNA revenues.
International Treaties
The sharing of the waters of the Colorado RiverColorado River
The Colorado River , is a river in the Southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico, approximately long, draining a part of the arid regions on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains. The watershed of the Colorado River covers in parts of seven U.S. states and two Mexican states...
, the Tijuana River
Tijuana River
The Tijuana River is an intermittent river, 120 mi long, on the Pacific coast of northern Baja California in Mexico and southern California in the United States.-Location:...
and the Rio Bravo/Rio Grande
Rio Grande
The Rio Grande is a river that flows from southwestern Colorado in the United States to the Gulf of Mexico. Along the way it forms part of the Mexico – United States border. Its length varies as its course changes...
is defined in the Treaty of Washington between the USA and Mexico signed on February 3, 1944.
See also
- Water supply and sanitation in MexicoWater supply and sanitation in MexicoWater supply and sanitation in Mexico is characterized by achievements and challenges. Among the achievements is a significant increase in access to piped water supply in urban areas as well as in rural areas between 1990 and 2006; a strong nationwide increase in access to improved sanitation ...
- Water resources management in MexicoWater resources management in MexicoWater resources management is one of Mexico's pressing concerns, and it is imposing heavy costs to the economy. The arid northwest and central regions contain 77% of Mexico's population and generate 87% of the gross domestic product . Poor southern regions have abundant water resources...
- Irrigation in MexicoIrrigation in MexicoMexico, a classified arid and semi-arid country, has a total land area of 2 million square kilometres, 23% of which is equipped for irrigated agriculture. The agricultural sector plays an important role in the economic development of the country accounting for 8.4 of agricultural gross domestic...
- Water management in Greater Mexico CityWater management in Greater Mexico CityGreater Mexico City , a metropolitan area with more than 19 million inhabitants including Mexico's capital with about 9 million inhabitants, faces tremendous water challenges...
Further reading
- National Water Commission, Mexico, 2006 Water statistics (in Spanish)
- World Resources, World Resources Institute, Washington
- World Bank: Water resources management in Mexico : The role of the water rights adjustment program (WRAP) in water sustainability and rural development, 2005 Water Rights Adjustment
- World Bank: The Role of Water Policy in Mexico, 2006 Water Policy