Stirling Colgate
Encyclopedia
Stirling Colgate is an American physicist
at Los Alamos National Laboratory
and a professor emeritus of physics
at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
(New Mexico Tech). He was America's premier diagnostician of thermonuclear weapons during the early years at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
in California. While much of his involvement with physics had been highly classified, he has made many contributions in the open literature including physics education
and astrophysics
.
until 1942 when a military delegation along with input from Robert Oppenheimer
and Ernest O. Lawrence
decided to close the school. Colgate and others in the class were then graduated without notice. The following year he attended Cornell University
to study electric engineering.
In 1944 Colgate enlisted in the merchant marine
. After Hiroshima
, the captain called upon him to "tell us what it means." At that time what he explained was strictly confidential, most of all the description of nuclear fission
.
After being discharged in 1946, Colgate returned to Cornell University. He then completed a Bachelor of Science and a PhD in nuclear physics
, taking up a position as postdoctoral fellow at Berkeley
.
with encouragement from the United States Air Force
in order to compete with Los Alamos weapons research. For the purposes of developing a hydrogen bomb, Teller assigned Colgate to the diagnostic measurements for their nuclear tests.
Colgate studied the radioactive products of an explosion which were scooped from the atmosphere by specially designed aircraft. His second job was measuring the range of energy of the neutrons and higher frequency gamma rays created by the nuclear tests.
Colgate's work required him to shuffle between Livermore and Los Alamos. Upon one trip to Los Alamos he met Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
, whom he worked with again almost ten years later.
In the 1950s Colgate was in charge of thousands during the Bravo test
, the first deliverable thermonuclear bomb. Upon this success, Teller encouraged Colgate to begin research on thermonuclear fusion and plasma physics.
could also set off satellites designed to detect hydrogen bomb explosions.
Colgate's supernova research during this investigation ignited his interest in astrophysics. Colgate and Johnson's first attempts to understand the mechanism of a supernova began with determining the actual cause of one. They assumed that "a shockwave
from the core bounce smashes into nuclear ash plummeting inwards due to the inward tug of gravity". The shock wave would turn this matter around, heating it up, causing the supernova. However this turned out to be wrong, as Richard White
used computer simulations to show that the shock wave would not be strong enough to trigger the event. Colgate and White began developing models of stars on the verge of collapse. White wrote a computer program combining software used to design bombs with equations of state
for a star. In discussion with a friend, Colgate found that neutrinos can develop degeneracy pressure. This degeneracy pressure aided the shock wave in blowing off the outer shells of an expiring star, leaving a neutron star
behind. While this research helped validate Chandrasekhar's work on limits
, neutron stars were still purely hypothetical.
In 1959, upon advice of Los Alamos and Livermore National Laboratories, State Department recruited Colgate as the scientific consultant on nuclear test ban negotiations in Geneva. It was here that he proposed the detection of nuclear testing by use of spy satellites
. However he also raised the possibility of false alarm caused by supernovae.
Despite encouragement by Teller to follow up on the detonation of the 50 megaton Czar bomb which the Soviet Union had just detonated in breach of the Soviet-American moratorium on nuclear weapons, Colgate decided to continue his prior research on supernovae.
In 1966 his research with Johnson and White finally emerged in a paper carefully edited by Chandrasekhar.
Colgate went on to serve as the president of New Mexico Tech in Socorro, New Mexico
from the beginning of 1965 through the end of 1974. While there he conducted research programs in astrophysics and atmospheric physics as well as leading the college. Many of his projects had colorful names inspired by the experimental configurations and goals. Some of these included DigAs (a search for early supernova with a digitally addressable telescope controlled in real time with an IBM 360-44 mainframe computer through a microwave link from the New Mexico Tech campus to the school's Langmuir Laboratory
), Paul Bunyan
's Condom (aka PBC - a long plastic tube inflated by a B-26 bomber engine/propeller pumping charged smoke up into a thunder storm cloud), and SNORT (supernova observational radio telescope - a search for radio frequency chirps caused by the dispersive media between the receiver and the distant supernova).
From 1975 to the present, Colgate has worked at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) and is a professor emeritus at New Mexico Tech. He has continued his research into supernova and received the 2006 Los Alamos medal from LANL.
Physicist
A physicist is a scientist who studies or practices physics. Physicists study a wide range of physical phenomena in many branches of physics spanning all length scales: from sub-atomic particles of which all ordinary matter is made to the behavior of the material Universe as a whole...
at Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory, managed and operated by Los Alamos National Security , located in Los Alamos, New Mexico...
and a professor emeritus of physics
Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology is a university located in Socorro, New Mexico....
(New Mexico Tech). He was America's premier diagnostician of thermonuclear weapons during the early years at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , just outside Livermore, California, is a Federally Funded Research and Development Center founded by the University of California in 1952...
in California. While much of his involvement with physics had been highly classified, he has made many contributions in the open literature including physics education
Physics education
Physics education or physics education research refers both to the methods currently used to teach physics and to an area of pedagogical research that seeks to improve those methods. Historically, physics has been taught at the high school and college level primarily by the lecture method...
and astrophysics
Astrophysics
Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and behavior...
.
Early Life and Education
Colgate attended Los Alamos Ranch SchoolLos Alamos Ranch School
Los Alamos Ranch School was a private boarding school for boys in Los Alamos County, New Mexico, near Otowi, in what would eventually become Los Alamos, New Mexico...
until 1942 when a military delegation along with input from Robert Oppenheimer
Robert Oppenheimer
Julius Robert Oppenheimer was an American theoretical physicist and professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley. Along with Enrico Fermi, he is often called the "father of the atomic bomb" for his role in the Manhattan Project, the World War II project that developed the first...
and Ernest O. Lawrence
Ernest Lawrence
Ernest Orlando Lawrence was an American physicist and Nobel Laureate, known for his invention, utilization, and improvement of the cyclotron atom-smasher beginning in 1929, based on his studies of the works of Rolf Widerøe, and his later work in uranium-isotope separation for the Manhattan Project...
decided to close the school. Colgate and others in the class were then graduated without notice. The following year he attended Cornell University
Cornell University
Cornell University is an Ivy League university located in Ithaca, New York, United States. It is a private land-grant university, receiving annual funding from the State of New York for certain educational missions...
to study electric engineering.
In 1944 Colgate enlisted in the merchant marine
Merchant Navy
The Merchant Navy is the maritime register of the United Kingdom, and describes the seagoing commercial interests of UK-registered ships and their crews. Merchant Navy vessels fly the Red Ensign and are regulated by the Maritime and Coastguard Agency...
. After Hiroshima
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
During the final stages of World War II in 1945, the United States conducted two atomic bombings against the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, the first on August 6, 1945, and the second on August 9, 1945. These two events are the only use of nuclear weapons in war to date.For six months...
, the captain called upon him to "tell us what it means." At that time what he explained was strictly confidential, most of all the description of nuclear fission
Nuclear fission
In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts , often producing free neutrons and photons , and releasing a tremendous amount of energy...
.
After being discharged in 1946, Colgate returned to Cornell University. He then completed a Bachelor of Science and a PhD in nuclear physics
Nuclear physics
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those...
, taking up a position as postdoctoral fellow at Berkeley
University of California, Berkeley
The University of California, Berkeley , is a teaching and research university established in 1868 and located in Berkeley, California, USA...
.
The Development of the Hydrogen Bomb
In 1952 he moved to Livermore National Laboratory. The laboratory had been recently created by Edward TellerEdward Teller
Edward Teller was a Hungarian-American theoretical physicist, known colloquially as "the father of the hydrogen bomb," even though he did not care for the title. Teller made numerous contributions to nuclear and molecular physics, spectroscopy , and surface physics...
with encouragement from the United States Air Force
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
in order to compete with Los Alamos weapons research. For the purposes of developing a hydrogen bomb, Teller assigned Colgate to the diagnostic measurements for their nuclear tests.
Colgate studied the radioactive products of an explosion which were scooped from the atmosphere by specially designed aircraft. His second job was measuring the range of energy of the neutrons and higher frequency gamma rays created by the nuclear tests.
Colgate's work required him to shuffle between Livermore and Los Alamos. Upon one trip to Los Alamos he met Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, FRS ) was an Indian origin American astrophysicist who, with William A. Fowler, won the 1983 Nobel Prize for Physics for key discoveries that led to the currently accepted theory on the later evolutionary stages of massive stars...
, whom he worked with again almost ten years later.
In the 1950s Colgate was in charge of thousands during the Bravo test
Castle Bravo
Castle Bravo was the code name given to the first U.S. test of a dry fuel thermonuclear hydrogen bomb device, detonated on March 1, 1954 at Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands, as the first test of Operation Castle. Castle Bravo was the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated by the United States ,...
, the first deliverable thermonuclear bomb. Upon this success, Teller encouraged Colgate to begin research on thermonuclear fusion and plasma physics.
Later Career
In 1956 Colgate and colleague Montgomery Johnson were recruited to investigate the resultant radiation and debris from a hydrogen bomb explosion in space. They realized that the X-ray and gamma-ray emissions of supernovaeSupernova
A supernova is a stellar explosion that is more energetic than a nova. It is pronounced with the plural supernovae or supernovas. Supernovae are extremely luminous and cause a burst of radiation that often briefly outshines an entire galaxy, before fading from view over several weeks or months...
could also set off satellites designed to detect hydrogen bomb explosions.
Colgate's supernova research during this investigation ignited his interest in astrophysics. Colgate and Johnson's first attempts to understand the mechanism of a supernova began with determining the actual cause of one. They assumed that "a shockwave
Shock wave
A shock wave is a type of propagating disturbance. Like an ordinary wave, it carries energy and can propagate through a medium or in some cases in the absence of a material medium, through a field such as the electromagnetic field...
from the core bounce smashes into nuclear ash plummeting inwards due to the inward tug of gravity". The shock wave would turn this matter around, heating it up, causing the supernova. However this turned out to be wrong, as Richard White
Richard White
Richard White may refer to:*Richard A. White, American public transit official*Richard White, 2nd Earl of Bantry , Irish representative peer*Richard White , cricketer*Richard Crawford White , U.S...
used computer simulations to show that the shock wave would not be strong enough to trigger the event. Colgate and White began developing models of stars on the verge of collapse. White wrote a computer program combining software used to design bombs with equations of state
Equation of state
In physics and thermodynamics, an equation of state is a relation between state variables. More specifically, an equation of state is a thermodynamic equation describing the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions...
for a star. In discussion with a friend, Colgate found that neutrinos can develop degeneracy pressure. This degeneracy pressure aided the shock wave in blowing off the outer shells of an expiring star, leaving a neutron star
Neutron star
A neutron star is a type of stellar remnant that can result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova event. Such stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are subatomic particles without electrical charge and with a slightly larger...
behind. While this research helped validate Chandrasekhar's work on limits
Chandrasekhar limit
When a star starts running out of fuel, it usually cools off and collapses into one of three compact forms, depending on its total mass:* a White Dwarf, a big lump of Carbon and Oxygen atoms, almost like one huge molecule...
, neutron stars were still purely hypothetical.
In 1959, upon advice of Los Alamos and Livermore National Laboratories, State Department recruited Colgate as the scientific consultant on nuclear test ban negotiations in Geneva. It was here that he proposed the detection of nuclear testing by use of spy satellites
Spy satellite
A spy satellite is an Earth observation satellite or communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications....
. However he also raised the possibility of false alarm caused by supernovae.
Despite encouragement by Teller to follow up on the detonation of the 50 megaton Czar bomb which the Soviet Union had just detonated in breach of the Soviet-American moratorium on nuclear weapons, Colgate decided to continue his prior research on supernovae.
In 1966 his research with Johnson and White finally emerged in a paper carefully edited by Chandrasekhar.
Colgate went on to serve as the president of New Mexico Tech in Socorro, New Mexico
Socorro, New Mexico
Socorro is a city in Socorro County in the U.S. state of New Mexico. It stands in the Rio Grande Valley at an elevation of . The population was 9,051 at the 2010 census...
from the beginning of 1965 through the end of 1974. While there he conducted research programs in astrophysics and atmospheric physics as well as leading the college. Many of his projects had colorful names inspired by the experimental configurations and goals. Some of these included DigAs (a search for early supernova with a digitally addressable telescope controlled in real time with an IBM 360-44 mainframe computer through a microwave link from the New Mexico Tech campus to the school's Langmuir Laboratory
Langmuir Laboratory for Atmospheric Research
The Langmuir Laboratory for Atmospheric Research is a scientific laboratory studying the cloud processes that produce lightning, hail, and rain, located in the Magdalena Mountains of central New Mexico in the United States...
), Paul Bunyan
Paul Bunyan
Paul Bunyan is a lumberjack figure in North American folklore and tradition. One of the most famous and popular North American folklore heroes, he is usually described as a giant as well as a lumberjack of unusual skill, and is often accompanied in stories by his animal companion, Babe the Blue...
's Condom (aka PBC - a long plastic tube inflated by a B-26 bomber engine/propeller pumping charged smoke up into a thunder storm cloud), and SNORT (supernova observational radio telescope - a search for radio frequency chirps caused by the dispersive media between the receiver and the distant supernova).
From 1975 to the present, Colgate has worked at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) and is a professor emeritus at New Mexico Tech. He has continued his research into supernova and received the 2006 Los Alamos medal from LANL.
Quote
- "I was always enamored with explosives, and eventually I graduated to dynamite and then nuclear bombs."