Stefan Bobrowski
Encyclopedia
Stefan Bobrowski was a Polish
19th-century politician and an activist for Polish independence. Bobrowski was a participant in the January Uprising
and was one of the leaders of the "Red
" faction among the insurrectionists as a member of the Central National Committee
(Komitet Centralny Narodowy) and the Provisional National Government (Tymczasowy Rząd Narodowy). He advocated land reform and an end to serfdom
in order to rally peasants to the cause, while at the same time he tried to ensure support of the szlachta
. He also tried to establish links with potential revolutionaries within Russia who opposed the Tsar. He died in 1863 in a duel
with a member of the "White
" faction, Count Adam Grabowski, to which he agreed but which he was sure to lose, on account of his extreme near-sightedness.
Bobrowski was an uncle of the writer Joseph Conrad
, and a possible basis for the main protagonist
in Conrad's Lord Jim
.
family in Terechowa near Berdyczów, which at the time was part of the Russian Empire
(now in Ukraine
). In 1852 he attended a gymnasium
in Nemyriv
and two years later in Saint Petersburg
. In 1856 he began attending Saint Petersburg State University
and studying Philosophy
. During this time he established contacts with radical Russian and Polish students. In 1860 he abandoned his studies and moved to Kiev
, where, while pretending to be a student, he engaged himself in political activism and joined the Triple Society (Związek Trojnicki); the name was a reference to the three parts of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
which had been taken by Russia in the Partitions of Poland
but not included in Congress Poland
(Volhynia
, Podolia
and the Kiev area). The purpose of the society was to promote an end to serfdom without compensation to the landlords in the three areas and attracting the peasants to the cause of Polish independence. However, ultimately, Polish and Ukrainian members of the society disagreed on the question of Polish and Ukrainian statehood and language, and its founder, Volodymyr Antonovych
left the organization, and was replaced on the ruling committee by Bobrowski. Bobrowski organized an illegal print shop in Kiev Pechersk Lavra
and oversaw the publication of the society's two newspapers Odrodzenie (Rebirth) and Wielkorus (Great-Ruthenian). The Tsarist police found the print shop and closed it down in 1862, while Bobrowski avoided captured because the police mistakenly arrested another student with a last name "Bobrowski" (who was shortly thereafter released). He escaped to Romania
. The authorities kept the case open until 1871, eight years after his death, when they finally closed it due to the "continued absence of the accused".
(Komitet Centralny Narodowy, KCN) was formed in Warsaw
, whose purpose was to prepare for an upcoming insurrection against Russia. Bobrowski joined it and served as its representative abroad. He traveled to Moldavia
, where he checked in on the formation of a Polish Legion which was supposed to enter Poland upon the outbreak of hostilities to support the insurrection. He also most likely traveled to Moscow
, where he met with representatives of the secret Russian organization Ziemla i Wola which had similar aims with regard to ending serfdom, and also opposed the Tsar. He also returned to Kiev, where he subordinated the Triple Society to the KCN.
On January 1, 1863 Bobrowski came to Warsaw, where he was made a member of the central committee of the KCN. On January 3 he voted for the outbreak of the uprising, despite the fact that he did not believe in its success. In October 1862 the KCN issued a statement that an insurrection was necessary in the face of a coming forced conscription
into the Tsarist army, and Bobrowski with his vote was supporting the official line. The KCN also chose Ludwik Mierosławski as a temporary dictator
of the insurrection, despite opposition from Bobrowski.
After a lack of success on the battlefield, and personal clashes with one of the generals of the uprising, Marian Langiewicz
, Mierosławski resigned his dictatorship and left Poland for Paris
. At that point the central committee, prodded by Bobrowski decided against the appointment of another dictator. However on March 10, 1863, Langiewicz, influenced and misinformed by the White faction, in particular Count Adam Grabowski, self-proclaimed as the new dictator of the uprising and took over a portion of the committee's funds which he used for arms purchases. Faced with such a fait accompli and wishing to avoid in fighting among the insurrectionists, Bobrowski reluctantly affirmed and supported Langiewicz. Since Langiewicz was essentially a nominee of the "White" faction, the Red dominated committee insisted that as dictator he appoint advisers from its ranks and attempted to circumscribe his power to solely military matters. Despite a successful military operation at Chroberz
(notable for the charge by the Zouves of death under the command of French born officer François Rochebrune
) after the battle of Grochowiska
, Langiewicz came to believe that the cause was lost and in late March, a few weeks after being made dictator, crossed over into Austria
, where he was interred
. As a result, afterwards, Bobrowski and the Committee issued a manifesto in which they announced that the Uprising was to have no more dictators.
Initially Bobrowski turned down the challenge, since in his view an ongoing national insurrection meant that it was not time to settle personal scores. However, the matter was taken up by a "Court of Honor" which decided in Grabowski's favor. Even though Bobrowski could have simply ignored the court's decision, his sense of chivalry dictated that he accept its verdict. He did so despite the fact that he was pretty much guaranteed to lose, as he was extremely short-sighted, while Grabowski was renowned as a marksman
in the Prussian army
. The duel took place on April 12, in a forest near Rawicz
, outside the village of Izbice
. It is doubtful if Bobrowski could even see his opponent. Grabowski shot him directly in the heart, and Bobrowski died on the spot.
Julian Łukaszewski, the Committee's representative in the Prussian partition, writing shortly after, in consideration of the circumstances under which it happened, called the duel an incident of "cold blooded" and "barbaric" murder.
Currently, a memorial stone marks the site of the duel.
Poles
thumb|right|180px|The state flag of [[Poland]] as used by Polish government and diplomatic authoritiesThe Polish people, or Poles , are a nation indigenous to Poland. They are united by the Polish language, which belongs to the historical Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages of Central Europe...
19th-century politician and an activist for Polish independence. Bobrowski was a participant in the January Uprising
January Uprising
The January Uprising was an uprising in the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against the Russian Empire...
and was one of the leaders of the "Red
Reds (January Uprising)
The "Reds" were a faction of the Polish insurrectionists during the January Uprising in 1863. They were radical democratic activists who supported the outbreak of the uprising from the outset, advocated an end to serfdom in Congress and future independent Poland, without compensation to the...
" faction among the insurrectionists as a member of the Central National Committee
Central National Committee
Central National Committee was the underground coordinating committee of the Polish independence movement in 1860's Congress Poland which was responsible for preparing a general uprising against Tsarist rule in order to reestablish Polish independence, lost after the Partitions of Poland...
(Komitet Centralny Narodowy) and the Provisional National Government (Tymczasowy Rząd Narodowy). He advocated land reform and an end to serfdom
Serfdom
Serfdom is the status of peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to Manorialism. It was a condition of bondage or modified slavery which developed primarily during the High Middle Ages in Europe and lasted to the mid-19th century...
in order to rally peasants to the cause, while at the same time he tried to ensure support of the szlachta
Szlachta
The szlachta was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges during the 1333-1370 reign of Casimir the Great. In 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of...
. He also tried to establish links with potential revolutionaries within Russia who opposed the Tsar. He died in 1863 in a duel
Duel
A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two individuals, with matched weapons in accordance with agreed-upon rules.Duels in this form were chiefly practised in Early Modern Europe, with precedents in the medieval code of chivalry, and continued into the modern period especially among...
with a member of the "White
Whites (January Uprising)
The "Whites" were a faction among Polish insurrectionists before and during the January Uprising in early 1860s. They consisted mostly of progressive minded land owners and industrialists, the middle class and some intellectuals of Russian controlled Congress Poland...
" faction, Count Adam Grabowski, to which he agreed but which he was sure to lose, on account of his extreme near-sightedness.
Bobrowski was an uncle of the writer Joseph Conrad
Joseph Conrad
Joseph Conrad was a Polish-born English novelist.Conrad is regarded as one of the great novelists in English, although he did not speak the language fluently until he was in his twenties...
, and a possible basis for the main protagonist
Protagonist
A protagonist is the main character of a literary, theatrical, cinematic, or musical narrative, around whom the events of the narrative's plot revolve and with whom the audience is intended to most identify...
in Conrad's Lord Jim
Lord Jim
Lord Jim is a novel by Joseph Conrad originally published as a serial in Blackwood's Magazine from October 1899 to November 1900.An early and primary event is Jim's abandonment of a ship in distress on which he is serving as a mate...
.
Early life
Bobrowski was born to a Polish szlachtaSzlachta
The szlachta was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges during the 1333-1370 reign of Casimir the Great. In 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of...
family in Terechowa near Berdyczów, which at the time was part of the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
(now in Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
). In 1852 he attended a gymnasium
Gymnasium (school)
A gymnasium is a type of school providing secondary education in some parts of Europe, comparable to English grammar schools or sixth form colleges and U.S. college preparatory high schools. The word γυμνάσιον was used in Ancient Greece, meaning a locality for both physical and intellectual...
in Nemyriv
Nemyriv
Nemyriv is a historic city in the Vinnytsia Oblast of western Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Nemyriv Raion . Nemyriv is one of the eldest cities in Vinnytska oblast, Ukraine...
and two years later in Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea...
. In 1856 he began attending Saint Petersburg State University
Saint Petersburg State University
Saint Petersburg State University is a Russian federal state-owned higher education institution based in Saint Petersburg and one of the oldest and largest universities in Russia....
and studying Philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
. During this time he established contacts with radical Russian and Polish students. In 1860 he abandoned his studies and moved to Kiev
Kiev
Kiev or Kyiv is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300. However, higher numbers have been cited in the press....
, where, while pretending to be a student, he engaged himself in political activism and joined the Triple Society (Związek Trojnicki); the name was a reference to the three parts of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...
which had been taken by Russia in the Partitions of Poland
Partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
but not included in Congress Poland
Congress Poland
The Kingdom of Poland , informally known as Congress Poland , created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, was a personal union of the Russian parcel of Poland with the Russian Empire...
(Volhynia
Volhynia
Volhynia, Volynia, or Volyn is a historic region in western Ukraine located between the rivers Prypiat and Southern Bug River, to the north of Galicia and Podolia; the region is named for the former city of Volyn or Velyn, said to have been located on the Southern Bug River, whose name may come...
, Podolia
Podolia
The region of Podolia is an historical region in the west-central and south-west portions of present-day Ukraine, corresponding to Khmelnytskyi Oblast and Vinnytsia Oblast. Northern Transnistria, in Moldova, is also a part of Podolia...
and the Kiev area). The purpose of the society was to promote an end to serfdom without compensation to the landlords in the three areas and attracting the peasants to the cause of Polish independence. However, ultimately, Polish and Ukrainian members of the society disagreed on the question of Polish and Ukrainian statehood and language, and its founder, Volodymyr Antonovych
Volodymyr Antonovych
Volodymyr Antonovych , was a prominent Ukrainian historian and one of the leaders of the Ukrainian national awakening in the Russian Empire. As a historian, Antonovych, who was longtime Professor of History at the University of Kiev, represented a populist approach to Ukrainian history.This...
left the organization, and was replaced on the ruling committee by Bobrowski. Bobrowski organized an illegal print shop in Kiev Pechersk Lavra
Kiev Pechersk Lavra
Kiev Pechersk Lavra or Kyiv Pechersk Lavra , also known as the Kiev Monastery of the Caves, is a historic Orthodox Christian monastery which gave its name to one of the city districts where it is located in Kiev, the capital of Ukraine....
and oversaw the publication of the society's two newspapers Odrodzenie (Rebirth) and Wielkorus (Great-Ruthenian). The Tsarist police found the print shop and closed it down in 1862, while Bobrowski avoided captured because the police mistakenly arrested another student with a last name "Bobrowski" (who was shortly thereafter released). He escaped to Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
. The authorities kept the case open until 1871, eight years after his death, when they finally closed it due to the "continued absence of the accused".
January Uprising
In 1862 the Central National CommitteeCentral National Committee
Central National Committee was the underground coordinating committee of the Polish independence movement in 1860's Congress Poland which was responsible for preparing a general uprising against Tsarist rule in order to reestablish Polish independence, lost after the Partitions of Poland...
(Komitet Centralny Narodowy, KCN) was formed in Warsaw
Warsaw
Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly from the Baltic Sea and from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most...
, whose purpose was to prepare for an upcoming insurrection against Russia. Bobrowski joined it and served as its representative abroad. He traveled to Moldavia
Moldavia
Moldavia is a geographic and historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester river...
, where he checked in on the formation of a Polish Legion which was supposed to enter Poland upon the outbreak of hostilities to support the insurrection. He also most likely traveled to Moscow
Moscow
Moscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...
, where he met with representatives of the secret Russian organization Ziemla i Wola which had similar aims with regard to ending serfdom, and also opposed the Tsar. He also returned to Kiev, where he subordinated the Triple Society to the KCN.
On January 1, 1863 Bobrowski came to Warsaw, where he was made a member of the central committee of the KCN. On January 3 he voted for the outbreak of the uprising, despite the fact that he did not believe in its success. In October 1862 the KCN issued a statement that an insurrection was necessary in the face of a coming forced conscription
Conscription
Conscription is the compulsory enlistment of people in some sort of national service, most often military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in some countries to the present day under various names...
into the Tsarist army, and Bobrowski with his vote was supporting the official line. The KCN also chose Ludwik Mierosławski as a temporary dictator
Roman dictator
In the Roman Republic, the dictator , was an extraordinary magistrate with the absolute authority to perform tasks beyond the authority of the ordinary magistrate . The office of dictator was a legal innovation originally named Magister Populi , i.e...
of the insurrection, despite opposition from Bobrowski.
After a lack of success on the battlefield, and personal clashes with one of the generals of the uprising, Marian Langiewicz
Marian Langiewicz
Marian Langiewicz, full name Marian Antoni Melchior Langiewicz , was a Polish patriot notable as a military leader of the January Uprising in 1863.-Biography:He was born in the province of Posen, his father being the local doctor...
, Mierosławski resigned his dictatorship and left Poland for Paris
Paris
Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
. At that point the central committee, prodded by Bobrowski decided against the appointment of another dictator. However on March 10, 1863, Langiewicz, influenced and misinformed by the White faction, in particular Count Adam Grabowski, self-proclaimed as the new dictator of the uprising and took over a portion of the committee's funds which he used for arms purchases. Faced with such a fait accompli and wishing to avoid in fighting among the insurrectionists, Bobrowski reluctantly affirmed and supported Langiewicz. Since Langiewicz was essentially a nominee of the "White" faction, the Red dominated committee insisted that as dictator he appoint advisers from its ranks and attempted to circumscribe his power to solely military matters. Despite a successful military operation at Chroberz
Chroberz
Chroberz is a village in Poland with 964 inhabitants . It is situated in Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, Pińczów County, Gmina Złota. In the years of 1975–1998 Chroberz administratively belonged to Kielce Voivodeship...
(notable for the charge by the Zouves of death under the command of French born officer François Rochebrune
François Rochebrune
François Rochebrune was a French army officer and Polish general. He participated in the January Uprising against Tsarist Russia, in which he organized and led the Zouaves of Death.-Biography:Rochebrune was born in Vienne in Isère, France, to an impoverished family...
) after the battle of Grochowiska
Grochowiska, Swietokrzyskie Voivodeship
Grochowiska is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Pińczów, within Pińczów County, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, in south-central Poland. It lies approximately south-east of Pińczów and south of the regional capital Kielce.-References:...
, Langiewicz came to believe that the cause was lost and in late March, a few weeks after being made dictator, crossed over into Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
, where he was interred
Internment
Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people, commonly in large groups, without trial. The Oxford English Dictionary gives the meaning as: "The action of 'interning'; confinement within the limits of a country or place." Most modern usage is about individuals, and there is a distinction...
. As a result, afterwards, Bobrowski and the Committee issued a manifesto in which they announced that the Uprising was to have no more dictators.
Death
On March 20 Bobrowski went to Kraków in order to investigate the circumstances of Langiewicz's self proclamation as dictator and subsequent departure. Shortly before he had sent a letter to Langiewicz in which he commented upon the character of Count Grabowski who had convinced Langiewicz to become dictator, and in which Bobrowski referred to Grabowski as a "common thug" which any "serious politician should be ashamed to even mention" ("jest to awanturnik najpospolitszy, o którym poważnemu politykowi nawet wstyd wspominać"). The letter and its contents somehow became public knowledge. Additionally when Bobrowski met Grabowski face to face he refused to shake his hand. Offended, Grabowski challenged Bobrowski to a duel.Initially Bobrowski turned down the challenge, since in his view an ongoing national insurrection meant that it was not time to settle personal scores. However, the matter was taken up by a "Court of Honor" which decided in Grabowski's favor. Even though Bobrowski could have simply ignored the court's decision, his sense of chivalry dictated that he accept its verdict. He did so despite the fact that he was pretty much guaranteed to lose, as he was extremely short-sighted, while Grabowski was renowned as a marksman
Marksman
A marksman is a person who is skilled in precision, or a sharpshooter shooting, using projectile weapons, such as with a rifle but most commonly with a sniper rifle, to shoot at long range targets...
in the Prussian army
Prussian Army
The Royal Prussian Army was the army of the Kingdom of Prussia. It was vital to the development of Brandenburg-Prussia as a European power.The Prussian Army had its roots in the meager mercenary forces of Brandenburg during the Thirty Years' War...
. The duel took place on April 12, in a forest near Rawicz
Rawicz
Rawicz is a town in central Poland with 21,398 inhabitants . It is situated in the Greater Poland Voivodeship ; previously it was in Leszno Voivodeship . It is the capital of Rawicz County.-History:...
, outside the village of Izbice
Izbice
Izbice is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Rawicz, within Rawicz County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, in west-central Poland. It lies approximately north-west of Rawicz and south of the regional capital Poznań.-References:...
. It is doubtful if Bobrowski could even see his opponent. Grabowski shot him directly in the heart, and Bobrowski died on the spot.
Julian Łukaszewski, the Committee's representative in the Prussian partition, writing shortly after, in consideration of the circumstances under which it happened, called the duel an incident of "cold blooded" and "barbaric" murder.
Currently, a memorial stone marks the site of the duel.