Reticular activating system
Encyclopedia
The reticular activating system (RAS) is an area of the brain
(including the reticular formation and its connections) responsible for regulating arousal
and sleep-wake transitions.
.
The direct electrical stimulation of the brain could simulate electrocortical relays, so Magoun used this to demonstrate, on two separate areas of a brainstem of a cat, how to produce wakefulness from sleep. First the ascending somatic
and auditory paths; second, a series of “ascending relays from the reticular formation of the lower brain stem through the mesencephalic tegmentum
, subthalamus
and hypothalamus
to the internal capsule
.” The latter was of particular interest, as this series of relays did not correspond to any known anatomical pathways for the wakefullness signal transduction and was coined the ascending reticular activating system (RAS).
Next, the significance of this newly identified relay system was evaluated by placing lesions in the medial
and lateral
portions of the front of the midbrain. Cats with mesancephalic interruptions to the RAS entered into a deep sleep and displayed corresponding brain waves. In alternative fashion, cats with similarly placed interruptions to ascending auditory and somatic pathways exhibited normal sleeping and wakefulness, and could be awakened with somatic stimuli. Because these external stimuli would be blocked by the interruptions, this indicated that the ascending transmission must travel through the newly discovered RAS.
Finally, Magoun recorded potentials within the medial portion of the brain stem and discovered that auditory stimuli directly fired portions of the reticular activating system. Furthermore, single-shock stimulation of the sciatic nerve
also activated the medial reticular formation
, hypothalamus
, and thalamus
. Excitation of the RAS did not depend on further signal propagation through the cerebellar circuits, as the same results were obtained following decerebellation and decortication. The researchers proposed that a column of cells surrounding the midbrain reticular formation received input from all the ascending tracts of the brain stem and relayed these afferents to the cortex and therefore regulated wakefulness.
. These pathways originate in the upper brainstem reticular core and project through synaptic relays in the rostral intralaminar and thalamic nuclei to the cerebral cortex. As a result, individuals with bilateral lesions of thalamic intralaminar nuclei are lethargic or somnolent. Several areas traditionally included in the RAS are:
The RAS consists of evolutionarily ancient areas of the brain, which are crucial to survival and protected during adverse periods. As a result, the RAS still functions during inhibitory periods of hypnosis
.
and adrenergic
components, which exhibit synergic as well as competitive actions to regulate thalamocortical activity and the corresponding behavioral state.
and the centrum ovale (semioval center
). These pathways involve cholinergic neurons of the posterior midbrain, the pedunculopontine nucleus
(PPN) and the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus
(LDT), which are active during waking and REM sleep. Cholinergic projections descend throughout the reticular formation and ascend to the substantia nigra
, basal forebrain
, thalamus
, and cerebellum
; cholinergic activation in the RAS results in increased acetylcholine release in these areas. Glutamate has also been suggested to play an important role in determining the firing patterns of the tegmental cholinergic neurons.
It has been recently reported that significant portions of posterior PPN cells are electrically coupled
. It appears that this process may help coordinate and enhance rhythmic firing across large populations of cells. This unifying activity may help facilitate signal propagation throughout the RAS and promote sleep-wake transitions. It is estimated that 10 to 15% of RAS cells may be electrically coupled.
. Unlike cholinergic neurons, the adrenergic neurons are active during waking and slow wave sleep but cease firing during REM sleep. In addition, adrenergic neurotransmitters are destroyed much more slowly than acetylcholine
. This sustained activity may account for some of the time latency during changes of consciousness
.
More recent work has indicated that the neuronal messenger nitric oxide
(NO) may also play an important role in modulating the activity of the noradrenergic neurons in the RAS. NO diffusion from dendrites regulates regional blood flow in the thalamus, where NO concentrations are high during waking and REM sleep and significantly lower during slow-wave sleep. Furthermore, injections of NO inhibitors have been found to affect the sleep-wake cycle and arousal.
Additionally, it appears that hypocretin/orexin
neurons of the hypothalamus activate both the adrenergic and cholinergic components of the RAS and may coordinate activity of the entire system.
mode the EEG is synchronized and when they are in tonic mode it is desynchronized. Stimulation of the RAS produces EEG desynchronization by suppressing slow cortical waves (0.3–1 Hz), delta wave
s (1–4 Hz), and spindle wave oscillations (11–14 Hz) and by promoting gamma band
(20 – 40 Hz) oscillations.
The physiological change from a state of deep sleep to wakefulness is reversible and mediated by the RAS. Inhibitory influence from the brain is active at sleep onset, likely coming from the preoptic area
(POA) of the hypothalamus. During sleep, neurons in the RAS will have a much lower firing rate; conversely, they will have a higher activity level during the waking state. Therefore, low frequency inputs (during sleep) from the RAS to the POA neurons result in an excitatory influence and higher activity levels (awake) will have inhibitory influence. In order that the brain may sleep, there must be a reduction in ascending afferent activity reaching the cortex by suppression of the RAS.
. There is increased regional blood flow (presumably indicating an increased measure of neuronal activity) in the midbrain reticular formation (MRF) and thalamic intralaminar nuclei during tasks requiring increased alertness and attention.
, which can result from prolonged pain. These results suggest some relationship between RAS circuits and physiological pain pathways.
Brain
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
(including the reticular formation and its connections) responsible for regulating arousal
Arousal
Arousal is a physiological and psychological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli. It involves the activation of the reticular activating system in the brain stem, the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system, leading to increased heart rate and blood pressure and a condition of...
and sleep-wake transitions.
History and Etymology
Moruzzi and Magoun first investigated the neural components regulating the brain’s sleep-wake mechanisms in 1949. Physiologists had proposed that some structure deep within the brain controlled mental wakefulness and alertness. It used to be thought that wakefulness depended only on the direct reception of afferent (sensory) stimuli at the cerebral cortexCerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex is a sheet of neural tissue that is outermost to the cerebrum of the mammalian brain. It plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought, language, and consciousness. It is constituted of up to six horizontal layers, each of which has a different...
.
The direct electrical stimulation of the brain could simulate electrocortical relays, so Magoun used this to demonstrate, on two separate areas of a brainstem of a cat, how to produce wakefulness from sleep. First the ascending somatic
Somatic nervous system
The somatic nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system associated with the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles...
and auditory paths; second, a series of “ascending relays from the reticular formation of the lower brain stem through the mesencephalic tegmentum
Mesencephalon
The midbrain or mesencephalon is a portion of the central nervous system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal , and temperature regulation....
, subthalamus
Subthalamus
The subthalamus is a part of the diencephalon. Its major part is the subthalamic nucleus. Functionally, it also encompasses the globus pallidus, which is topographically part of the telencephalon.-Anatomy:...
and hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
The Hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions...
to the internal capsule
Internal capsule
The internal capsule is an area of white matter in the brain that separates the caudate nucleus and the thalamus from the lenticular nucleus. The internal capsule contains both ascending and descending axons....
.” The latter was of particular interest, as this series of relays did not correspond to any known anatomical pathways for the wakefullness signal transduction and was coined the ascending reticular activating system (RAS).
Next, the significance of this newly identified relay system was evaluated by placing lesions in the medial
Anatomical terms of location
Standard anatomical terms of location are designations employed in science that deal with the anatomy of animals to avoid ambiguities that might otherwise arise. They are not language-specific, and thus require no translation...
and lateral
Anatomical terms of location
Standard anatomical terms of location are designations employed in science that deal with the anatomy of animals to avoid ambiguities that might otherwise arise. They are not language-specific, and thus require no translation...
portions of the front of the midbrain. Cats with mesancephalic interruptions to the RAS entered into a deep sleep and displayed corresponding brain waves. In alternative fashion, cats with similarly placed interruptions to ascending auditory and somatic pathways exhibited normal sleeping and wakefulness, and could be awakened with somatic stimuli. Because these external stimuli would be blocked by the interruptions, this indicated that the ascending transmission must travel through the newly discovered RAS.
Finally, Magoun recorded potentials within the medial portion of the brain stem and discovered that auditory stimuli directly fired portions of the reticular activating system. Furthermore, single-shock stimulation of the sciatic nerve
Sciatic nerve
The sciatic nerve is a large nerve fiber in humans and other animals. It begins in the lower back and runs through the buttock and down the lower limb...
also activated the medial reticular formation
Reticular formation
The reticular formation is a part of the brain that is involved in actions such as awaking/sleeping cycle, and filtering incoming stimuli to discriminate irrelevant background stimuli...
, hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
The Hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions...
, and thalamus
Thalamus
The thalamus is a midline paired symmetrical structure within the brains of vertebrates, including humans. It is situated between the cerebral cortex and midbrain, both in terms of location and neurological connections...
. Excitation of the RAS did not depend on further signal propagation through the cerebellar circuits, as the same results were obtained following decerebellation and decortication. The researchers proposed that a column of cells surrounding the midbrain reticular formation received input from all the ascending tracts of the brain stem and relayed these afferents to the cortex and therefore regulated wakefulness.
Anatomical Components
The RAS is composed of several neuronal circuits connecting the brainstem to the cortexCerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex is a sheet of neural tissue that is outermost to the cerebrum of the mammalian brain. It plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought, language, and consciousness. It is constituted of up to six horizontal layers, each of which has a different...
. These pathways originate in the upper brainstem reticular core and project through synaptic relays in the rostral intralaminar and thalamic nuclei to the cerebral cortex. As a result, individuals with bilateral lesions of thalamic intralaminar nuclei are lethargic or somnolent. Several areas traditionally included in the RAS are:
- Midbrain Reticular FormationReticular formationThe reticular formation is a part of the brain that is involved in actions such as awaking/sleeping cycle, and filtering incoming stimuli to discriminate irrelevant background stimuli...
- Mesencephalic Nucleus (mesencephalonMesencephalonThe midbrain or mesencephalon is a portion of the central nervous system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal , and temperature regulation....
) - Thalamic Intralaminar nucleusIntralaminar nucleusThe intralaminar nucleus is a nucleus of the thalamus that contains the following nuclei:* central lateral* centromedian * paracentral* parafascicular.Some sources also include a "central dorsal" nucleus....
(centromedian nucleusCentromedian nucleusIn the anatomy of the brain, the centromedian nucleus, also known as the centrum medianum, is a part of the intralaminar nucleus of the thalamus...
) - Dorsal HypothalamusHypothalamusThe Hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions...
- TegmentumTegmentumThe tegmentum is a general area within the brainstem. It is located between the ventricular system and distinctive basal or ventral structures at each level...
The RAS consists of evolutionarily ancient areas of the brain, which are crucial to survival and protected during adverse periods. As a result, the RAS still functions during inhibitory periods of hypnosis
Hypnosis
Hypnosis is "a trance state characterized by extreme suggestibility, relaxation and heightened imagination."It is a mental state or imaginative role-enactment . It is usually induced by a procedure known as a hypnotic induction, which is commonly composed of a long series of preliminary...
.
Neurotransmitters
The neuronal circuits of the RAS are modulated by complex interactions between a few main neurotransmitters. The RAS contains both cholinergicCholinergic
The word choline generally refers to the various quaternary ammonium salts containing the N,N,N-trimethylethanolammonium cation. Found in most animal tissues, choline is a primary component of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and functions with inositol as a basic constituent of lecithin...
and adrenergic
Adrenergic
An adrenergic agent is a drug, or other substance, which has effects similar to, or the same as, epinephrine . Thus, it is a kind of sympathomimetic agent...
components, which exhibit synergic as well as competitive actions to regulate thalamocortical activity and the corresponding behavioral state.
Cholinergic
Shute and Lewis first revealed the presence of a cholinergic component of the RAS, composed of two ascending mesopontine tegmental pathways rostrally situated between the mesencephalonMesencephalon
The midbrain or mesencephalon is a portion of the central nervous system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal , and temperature regulation....
and the centrum ovale (semioval center
Semioval center
The semioval center or centrum semiovale is the white matter found underneath the grey matter on the surface of the cerebrum. The term is synonymous with cerebral white matter....
). These pathways involve cholinergic neurons of the posterior midbrain, the pedunculopontine nucleus
Pedunculopontine nucleus
The pedunculopontine nucleus is located in the brainstem, caudal to the substantia nigra and adjacent to the superior cerebellar peduncle. It has two divisions, one containing cholinergic neurons, the pars compacta, and one containing mostly glutamatergic neurons, the pars dissipata...
(PPN) and the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus
Laterodorsal tegmental nucleus
The laterodorsal tegmental nucleus is a nucleus situated in the brainstem, spanning the midbrain tegmentum and the pontine tegmentum...
(LDT), which are active during waking and REM sleep. Cholinergic projections descend throughout the reticular formation and ascend to the substantia nigra
Substantia nigra
The substantia nigra is a brain structure located in the mesencephalon that plays an important role in reward, addiction, and movement. Substantia nigra is Latin for "black substance", as parts of the substantia nigra appear darker than neighboring areas due to high levels of melanin in...
, basal forebrain
Basal forebrain
The basal forebrain is a collection of structures located ventrally to the striatum. It is considered to be the major cholinergic output of the central nervous system . It includes a group of structures that lie near the bottom of the front of the brain, including the nucleus basalis, diagonal band...
, thalamus
Thalamus
The thalamus is a midline paired symmetrical structure within the brains of vertebrates, including humans. It is situated between the cerebral cortex and midbrain, both in terms of location and neurological connections...
, and cerebellum
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a region of the brain that plays an important role in motor control. It may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language, and in regulating fear and pleasure responses, but its movement-related functions are the most solidly established...
; cholinergic activation in the RAS results in increased acetylcholine release in these areas. Glutamate has also been suggested to play an important role in determining the firing patterns of the tegmental cholinergic neurons.
It has been recently reported that significant portions of posterior PPN cells are electrically coupled
Electrical synapse
An electrical synapse is a mechanical and electrically conductive link between two abutting neurons that is formed at a narrow gap between the pre- and postsynaptic neurons known as a gap junction. At gap junctions, such cells approach within about 3.5 nm of each other, a much shorter...
. It appears that this process may help coordinate and enhance rhythmic firing across large populations of cells. This unifying activity may help facilitate signal propagation throughout the RAS and promote sleep-wake transitions. It is estimated that 10 to 15% of RAS cells may be electrically coupled.
Adrenergic
The adrenergic component of the reticular activating system is closely associated with the noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus. In addition to noradrenergic projections that parallel the aforementioned cholinergic paths, there are ascending projections directly to the cerebral cortex and descending projections to the spinal cordSpinal cord
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the brain . The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system...
. Unlike cholinergic neurons, the adrenergic neurons are active during waking and slow wave sleep but cease firing during REM sleep. In addition, adrenergic neurotransmitters are destroyed much more slowly than acetylcholine
Acetylcholine
The chemical compound acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter in both the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system in many organisms including humans...
. This sustained activity may account for some of the time latency during changes of consciousness
Consciousness
Consciousness is a term that refers to the relationship between the mind and the world with which it interacts. It has been defined as: subjectivity, awareness, the ability to experience or to feel, wakefulness, having a sense of selfhood, and the executive control system of the mind...
.
More recent work has indicated that the neuronal messenger nitric oxide
Nitric oxide
Nitric oxide, also known as nitrogen monoxide, is a diatomic molecule with chemical formula NO. It is a free radical and is an important intermediate in the chemical industry...
(NO) may also play an important role in modulating the activity of the noradrenergic neurons in the RAS. NO diffusion from dendrites regulates regional blood flow in the thalamus, where NO concentrations are high during waking and REM sleep and significantly lower during slow-wave sleep. Furthermore, injections of NO inhibitors have been found to affect the sleep-wake cycle and arousal.
Additionally, it appears that hypocretin/orexin
Orexin
Orexins, also called hypocretins, are the common names given to a pair of excitatory neuropeptide hormones that were simultaneously discovered by two groups of researchers in rat brains....
neurons of the hypothalamus activate both the adrenergic and cholinergic components of the RAS and may coordinate activity of the entire system.
Regulating Sleep-Wake Transitions
The main function of the RAS is to modify and potentiate thalamic and cortical function such that electroencephalogram (EEG) desynchronization ensues. There are distinct differences in the brain’s electrical activity during periods of wakefulness and sleep: Low voltage fast burst brain waves (EEG desynchronization) are associated with wakefulness and REM sleep (which are electrophysiologically identical); large voltage slow waves are found during non-REM sleep. Generally speaking, when thalamic relay neurons are in burstBursting
Bursting is an extremely diverse general phenomenon of the activation patterns of neurons in the central nervous system and spinal cord where periods of rapid spiking are followed by quiescent, silent, periods. Bursting is thought to be important in the operation of robust central pattern...
mode the EEG is synchronized and when they are in tonic mode it is desynchronized. Stimulation of the RAS produces EEG desynchronization by suppressing slow cortical waves (0.3–1 Hz), delta wave
Delta wave
A delta wave is a high amplitude brain wave with a frequency of oscillation between 0–4 hertz. Delta waves, like other brain waves, are recorded with an electroencephalogram and are usually associated with the deepest stages of sleep , also known as slow-wave sleep , and aid in characterizing the...
s (1–4 Hz), and spindle wave oscillations (11–14 Hz) and by promoting gamma band
Gamma wave
A gamma wave is a pattern of neural oscillation in humans with a frequency between 25 to 100 Hz, though 40 Hz is prototypical.According to a popular theory, gamma waves may be implicated in creating the unity of conscious perception...
(20 – 40 Hz) oscillations.
The physiological change from a state of deep sleep to wakefulness is reversible and mediated by the RAS. Inhibitory influence from the brain is active at sleep onset, likely coming from the preoptic area
Preoptic area
The preoptic area is a region of the hypothalamus. According to the MeSH classification, it is considered part of the anterior hypothalamus. There are four nuclei in this region, according to Terminologia Anatomica .-Functions:The preoptic area is responsible for thermoregulation and receives...
(POA) of the hypothalamus. During sleep, neurons in the RAS will have a much lower firing rate; conversely, they will have a higher activity level during the waking state. Therefore, low frequency inputs (during sleep) from the RAS to the POA neurons result in an excitatory influence and higher activity levels (awake) will have inhibitory influence. In order that the brain may sleep, there must be a reduction in ascending afferent activity reaching the cortex by suppression of the RAS.
Attention
The reticular activating system also helps mediate transitions from relaxed wakefulness to periods of high attentionAttention
Attention is the cognitive process of paying attention to one aspect of the environment while ignoring others. Attention is one of the most intensely studied topics within psychology and cognitive neuroscience....
. There is increased regional blood flow (presumably indicating an increased measure of neuronal activity) in the midbrain reticular formation (MRF) and thalamic intralaminar nuclei during tasks requiring increased alertness and attention.
Anesthetic Effects
One intuitive hypothesis, first proposed by Magoun, is that anesthetics might achieve their potent effects by reversibly blocking neural conduction within the reticular activating system, thereby diminishing overall arousal. However, further research has suggested that selective depression of the RAS may be too simplistic of an explanation to fully account for anesthetic effects. This remains a major unknown and point of contention between experts of the reticular activating system and certainly needs further research.Pain
Direct electrical stimulation of the reticular activating system produces pain responses in cats and reduces verbal reports of pain in humans. Additionally, ascending reticular activation in cats can produce mydriasisMydriasis
Mydriasis is a dilation of the pupil due to disease, trauma or the use of drugs. Normally, the pupil dilates in the dark and constricts in the light to respectively improve vividity at night and to protect the retina from sunlight damage during the day...
, which can result from prolonged pain. These results suggest some relationship between RAS circuits and physiological pain pathways.
Developmental Influences
There are several potential factors that may adversely influence the development of the reticular activating system:- Preterm birth
- Regardless of birth weight or weeks of gestation, premature birth induces persistent deleterious effects on pre-attentional (arousal and sleep-wake abnormalities), attentional (reaction time and sensory gating), and cortical mechanisms throughout development.
- Smoking during pregnancy
- Prenatal exposure to cigarette smoke is known to produce lasting arousal, attentional and cognitive deficits in humans. This exposure can induce up-regulation of nicotinic receptors on α4b2 subunit on Pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) cells, resulting in increased tonic activity, resting membrane potential, and hyperpolarization-activated cation currentHCN channelHyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels are proteins that serve as ion channels across the plasma membrane of heart and brain cells. HCN channels are sometimes referred to as “pacemaker channels” because they help to generate rhythmic activity within groups of heart and brain...
. These major disturbances of the intrinsic membrane properties of PPN neurons result in increased levels of arousal and sensory gatingSensory gatingSensory gating describes neurological processes of filtering out redundant or unnecessary stimuli in the brain from all possible environmental stimuli. Also referred to as filtering, or sensorimotor gating, sensory gating prevents an overload of irrelevant information in the higher cortical...
deficits (demonstrated by a diminished amount of habituation to repeated auditory stimuli). It is hypothesized that these physiological changes may intensify attentional dysregulation later in life.
Pathologies
Given the importance of the RAS for modulating cortical changes, disorders of the RAS should result in alterations of sleep-wake cycles and disturbances in arousal. Some pathologies of the RAS may be attributed to age, as there appears to be a general decline in reactivity of the RAS with advancing years. Changes in electrical coupling have been suggested to account for some changes in RAS activity: If coupling were down-regulated, there would be a corresponding decrease in higher-frequency synchronization (gamma band). Conversely, up-regulated electrical coupling would increase synchronization of fast rhythms that could lead to increased arousal and REM sleep drive. Specifically, disruption of the RAS has been implicated in the following disorders:- SchizophreniaSchizophreniaSchizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by a disintegration of thought processes and of emotional responsiveness. It most commonly manifests itself as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, or disorganized speech and thinking, and it is accompanied by significant social...
- Intractable schizophrenic patients have a significant increase (> 60%) in the number of PPN neurons and dysfunction of NO signaling involved in modulating cholinergic output of the RAS.
- Post-traumatic stress disorderPost-traumatic stress disorderPosttraumaticstress disorder is a severe anxiety disorder that can develop after exposure to any event that results in psychological trauma. This event may involve the threat of death to oneself or to someone else, or to one's own or someone else's physical, sexual, or psychological integrity,...
, Parkinson’s Disease, REM behavior disorder
- Post-traumatic stress disorder
- Patients with these syndromes exhibit a significant (>50%) decrease in the number of locus coeruleus (LC) neurons, resulting is increased disinhibition of the PPN.
- NarcolepsyNarcolepsyNarcolepsy is a chronic sleep disorder, or dyssomnia, characterized by excessive sleepiness and sleep attacks at inappropriate times, such as while at work. People with narcolepsy often experience disturbed nocturnal sleep and an abnormal daytime sleep pattern, which often is confused with insomnia...
- There is a significant down-regulation of PPN output and a loss of orexin peptides, promoting the excessive daytime sleepiness that is characteristic of this disorder.
- Progressive supranuclear palsyProgressive supranuclear palsyProgressive supranuclear palsy is a degenerative disease involving the gradual deterioration and death of specific areas of the brain....
(PSP)
- Dysfunction of NO signaling has been implicated in the development of PSP.
- Depression, autismAutismAutism is a disorder of neural development characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. These signs all begin before a child is three years old. Autism affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their...
, Alzheimer’s disease, attention deficit disorder
- The exact role of the RAS in each of these disorders has not yet been identified. However, it is expected that in any neurological or psychiatric disease that manifests disturbances in arousal and sleep-wake cycle regulation, there will be a corresponding dysregulation of some elements of the RAS.
External links
- Diagram at Rutgers-CamdenRutgers-CamdenRutgers University in Camden, New Jersey, USA , is a state-funded, coeducational, public, research university. Founded in the 1920s, Rutgers–Camden began as an amalgam of the South Jersey Law School and the College of South Jersey. It is the southernmost of the three regional campuses of Rutgers,...