The midbrain or
mesencephalon (from the Greek
mesos - middle, and
enkephalos - brain) is a portion of the
central nervous systemThe central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that integrates the information that it receives from, and coordinates the activity of, all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish...
associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation.
Anatomically, it comprises the tectum (or corpora quadrigemina),
tegmentumThe tegmentum is a general area within the brainstem. It is located between the ventricular system and distinctive basal or ventral structures at each level...
, the ventricular mesocoelia (or "iter"), and the
cerebral peduncleMainly, the three common areas that give rise to the cerebral peduncles are the cortex, the spinal cord and the cerebellum. The cerebral peduncle, by most classifications, is everything in the mesencephalon except the tectum. The region includes the midbrain tegmentum, crus cerebri and pretectum...
s, as well as several nuclei and fasciculi. Caudally the mesencephalon adjoins the
ponsThe pons is a structure located on the brain stem, named after the Latin word for "bridge" or the 16th-century Italian anatomist and surgeon Costanzo Varolio . It is superior to the medulla oblongata, inferior to the midbrain, and ventral to the cerebellum. In humans and other bipeds this means it...
(
metencephalonThe metencephalon is a developmental categorization of portions of the central nervous system. The metencephalon is composed of the pons and the cerebellum; contains a portion of the fourth ventricle; and the trigeminal nerve , abducens nerve , facial nerve , and a portion of the vestibulocochlear...
) and rostrally it adjoins the
diencephalonThe diencephalon is the region of the vertebrate neural tube which gives rise to posterior forebrain structures. In development, the forebrain develops from the prosencephalon, the most anterior vesicle of the neural tube which later forms both the diencephalon and the...
(Thalamus, hypothalamus, etc.). The midbrain is located below the
cerebral cortexThe cerebral cortex is a sheet of neural tissue that is outermost to the cerebrum of the mammalian brain. It plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought, language, and consciousness. It is constituted of up to six horizontal layers, each of which has a different...
, and above the hindbrain placing it near the center of the brain.
Development
During embryonic development, the midbrain arises from the second vesicle, also known as the mesencephalon, of the
neural tubeIn the developing vertebrate, the neural tube is the embryo's precursor to the central nervous system, which comprises the brain and spinal cord...
. Unlike the other two vesicles, the
prosencephalonIn the anatomy of the brain of vertebrates, the prosencephalon is the rostral-most portion of the brain. The prosencephalon, the mesencephalon , and rhombencephalon are the three primary portions of the brain during early development of the central nervous system...
and
rhombencephalonThe rhombencephalon is a developmental categorization of portions of the central nervous system in vertebrates.The rhombencephalon can be subdivided in a variable number of transversal swellings called rhombomeres...
, the mesencephalon remains undivided for the remainder of neural development. It does not split into other brain areas. while the prosencephalon, for example, divides into the
telencephalonThe cerebrum or telencephalon, together with the diencephalon, constitutes the forebrain. The cerebrum is the most anterior region of the vertebrate central nervous system. Telencephalon refers to the embryonic structure, from which the mature cerebrum develops...
and the
diencephalonThe diencephalon is the region of the vertebrate neural tube which gives rise to posterior forebrain structures. In development, the forebrain develops from the prosencephalon, the most anterior vesicle of the neural tube which later forms both the diencephalon and the...
.
Throughout embryonic development, the cells within the midbrain continually multiply and compress the still-forming Aqueduct of Sylvius or cerebral aqueduct. Partial or total obstruction of the cerebral aqueduct during development can lead to congenital
hydrocephalusHydrocephalus , also known as "water in the brain," is a medical condition in which there is an abnormal accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles, or cavities, of the brain. This may cause increased intracranial pressure inside the skull and progressive enlargement of the head,...
.
Functional Role
The mesencephalon is considered part of the brainstem. Its
substantia nigraThe substantia nigra is a brain structure located in the mesencephalon that plays an important role in reward, addiction, and movement. Substantia nigra is Latin for "black substance", as parts of the substantia nigra appear darker than neighboring areas due to high levels of melanin in...
is closely associated with
motor systemThe motor system is the part of the central nervous system that is involved with movement. It consists of the pyramidal and extrapyramidal system....
pathways of the
basal gangliaThe basal ganglia are a group of nuclei of varied origin in the brains of vertebrates that act as a cohesive functional unit. They are situated at the base of the forebrain and are strongly connected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus and other brain areas...
. The human mesencephalon is
archipallianIn anatomy of animals, the archipallium is the oldest region of the brain's pallium.The archipallium is often considered contiguous with the olfactory cortex, but the extent of the archipallium varies among species. In older species, such as fish, the archipallium makes up most of the cerebrum...
in origin, meaning its general architecture is shared with the most ancient of
vertebrateVertebrates are animals that are members of the subphylum Vertebrata . Vertebrates are the largest group of chordates, with currently about 58,000 species described. Vertebrates include the jawless fishes, bony fishes, sharks and rays, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds...
s.
DopamineDopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter present in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this substituted phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five known types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their...
produced in the
substantia nigraThe substantia nigra is a brain structure located in the mesencephalon that plays an important role in reward, addiction, and movement. Substantia nigra is Latin for "black substance", as parts of the substantia nigra appear darker than neighboring areas due to high levels of melanin in...
plays a role in motivation and habituation of species from humans to the most elementary animals such as insects. The midbrain is the smallest region in the brain and helps to relay information for vision and hearing.
Corpora quadrigemina
The
corpora quadrigeminaIn the brain, the corpora quadrigemina are the four colliculi—two inferior, two superior—located on the tectum of the dorsal aspect of the midbrain.They are respectively named the inferior and superior colliculus....
("quadruplet bodies") are four solid optic lobes on the dorsal side of cerebral aqueduct, where the superior posterior pair are called the
superior colliculiThe optic tectum or simply tectum is a paired structure that forms a major component of the vertebrate midbrain. In mammals this structure is more commonly called the superior colliculus , but, even in mammals, the adjective tectal is commonly used. The tectum is a layered structure, with a...
and the inferior posterior pair are called the
inferior colliculiThe inferior colliculus is the principal midbrain nucleus of the auditory pathway and receives input from several more peripheral brainstem nuclei in the auditory pathway, as well as inputs from the auditory cortex...
.
The four solid optic lobes help to decussate several fibres of the optic nerve. However some fibers also show ipsilateral arrangement (i.e. they run parallel on the same side without decussating.)
The superior colliculus is involved with saccadic eye movements; while the inferior is a synapsing point for sound information. The
trochlear nerveThe trochlear nerve is a motor nerve that innervates a single muscle: the superior oblique muscle of the eye....
comes out of the posterior surface of the midbrain, below the inferior colliculus.
Cerebral peduncle
The cerebral peduncles are paired structures, present on the ventral side of cerebral aqueduct, and they further carry
tegmentumThe tegmentum is a general area within the brainstem. It is located between the ventricular system and distinctive basal or ventral structures at each level...
on the dorsal side and cresta or pes on the ventral side, and both of them accommodate the
corticospinal tractThe corticospinal or pyramidal tract is a collection of axons that travel between the cerebral cortex of the brain and the spinal cord....
fibres, from the
internal capsuleThe internal capsule is an area of white matter in the brain that separates the caudate nucleus and the thalamus from the lenticular nucleus. The internal capsule contains both ascending and descending axons....
(i.e. ascending + descending tracts = longitudinal tract.)
the middle part of cerebral peduncles carry
substantia nigraThe substantia nigra is a brain structure located in the mesencephalon that plays an important role in reward, addiction, and movement. Substantia nigra is Latin for "black substance", as parts of the substantia nigra appear darker than neighboring areas due to high levels of melanin in...
(also called "Black Matter") which is a type of basal nucleus. It is the only part of the brain that carries melanin pigment.
Between the peduncles is the interpeduncular fossa, which is a cistern filled with
cerebrospinal fluidCerebrospinal fluid , Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear, colorless, bodily fluid, that occupies the subarachnoid space and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord...
. The
oculomotor nerveThe oculomotor nerve is the 3rd of 12 paired cranial nerves. It enters the orbit via the superior orbital fissure and controls most of the eye's movements, including constriction of the pupil and maintaining an open eyelid by innervating the Levator palpebrae superiors muscle. The optic nerve is...
comes out between the peduncles, and the trochlear nerve is visible wrapping around the outside of the peduncles. The oculomotor is responsible for pupil constriction (parasympathetic) and eye movement.
Anatomical features of cross-sections through the midbrain
The midbrain is usually sectioned at the level of the superior and inferior colliculi.
- A transverse cross-section at the level of the superior colliculus shows the red nucleus
The red nucleus is a structure in the rostral midbrain involved in motor coordination. It comprises a caudal magnocellular and a rostral parvocellular part.-Function:...
, the nuclei of the oculomotor nerveThe oculomotor nerve is the 3rd of 12 paired cranial nerves. It enters the orbit via the superior orbital fissure and controls most of the eye's movements, including constriction of the pupil and maintaining an open eyelid by innervating the Levator palpebrae superiors muscle. The optic nerve is...
(and associated Edinger-Westphal nucleusThe Edinger-Westphal nucleus is the accessory parasympathetic cranial nerve nucleus of the oculomotor nerve , supplying the constricting muscles of the iris...
), the superior cerebellar peduncles or crus cerebri, and the substantia nigraThe substantia nigra is a brain structure located in the mesencephalon that plays an important role in reward, addiction, and movement. Substantia nigra is Latin for "black substance", as parts of the substantia nigra appear darker than neighboring areas due to high levels of melanin in...
.
- A horizontal cross section at the level of the inferior colluiculus still shows the substantia nigra. Also apparent are the trochlear nerve
The trochlear nerve is a motor nerve that innervates a single muscle: the superior oblique muscle of the eye....
nucleus, and the decussationDecussation is used in biological contexts to describe a crossing.Examples include:* In the brain, where nerve fibers obliquely cross from one lateral part to the other, that is to say they cross at a level other than their origin...
of the superior cerebellar peduncles.
- Both sections will show the cerebral aqueduct
The mesencephalic duct, also known as the aqueductus mesencephali, aqueduct of Sylvius or the cerebral aqueduct, contains cerebrospinal fluid , is within the mesencephalon and connects the third ventricle in the diencephalon to the fourth ventricle in the mesencephalon, which is between the pons...
, which connects the thirdThe third ventricle is one of four connected fluid-filled cavities comprising the ventricular system within the human brain. It is a median cleft between the two thalami, and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid ....
and fourth ventricleThe fourth ventricle is one of the four connected fluid-filled cavities within the human brain. These cavities, known collectively as the ventricular system, consist of the left and right lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle...
and the periaqueductal grayPeriaqueductal gray is the gray matter located around the cerebral aqueduct within the tegmentum of the midbrain. It plays a role in the descending modulation of pain and in defensive behaviour...
.
One
mnemonicA mnemonic , or mnemonic device, is any learning technique that aids memory. To improve long term memory, mnemonic systems are used to make memorization easier. Commonly encountered mnemonics are often verbal, such as a very short poem or a special word used to help a person remember something,...
for remembering the structures of the midbrain involves visualizing the mesencephalic cross-section as an upside down bear face. The two red nuclei are the eyes of the bear and the cerebellar peduncles are the ears.
Organization
- mesencephalon
- tectum
- inferior colliculi
- superior colliculi
- cerebral peduncle
Mainly, the three common areas that give rise to the cerebral peduncles are the cortex, the spinal cord and the cerebellum. The cerebral peduncle, by most classifications, is everything in the mesencephalon except the tectum. The region includes the midbrain tegmentum, crus cerebri and pretectum...
- midbrain tegmentum
The midbrain tegmentum is the part of the midbrain extending from the substantia nigra to the cerebral aqueduct in a horizontal section of the midbrain. It forms the floor of the midbrain which surrounds the cerebral aqueduct.-External links:*...
- crus cerebri
- substantia nigra
The substantia nigra is a brain structure located in the mesencephalon that plays an important role in reward, addiction, and movement. Substantia nigra is Latin for "black substance", as parts of the substantia nigra appear darker than neighboring areas due to high levels of melanin in...