Gloydius blomhoffii
Encyclopedia
Gloydius blomhoffii, commonly known as the mamushi, or Japanese mamushi, is a venomous
pitviper
species
found in China
, Japan
, and Korea
. There are four subspecies
including the nominate subspecies described here.
This species and the Okinawan habu
are the most venomous snakes in Japan. Every year, 2000–3000 people in Japan are bitten by mamushi, bite victims typically require one week of treatment in hospital, severe bites require intensive care, and approximately 10 victims die.
The body pattern consists of a pale gray, reddish-brown or yellow-brown background, overlaid with a series of irregularly-shaped lateral blotches. These blotches are bordered with black and often have lighter centers. The head is dark brown or black, with beige or pale-gray sides.
, Japan
, and Korea
. It is the most common snake in Japan. According to Gloyd and Conant (1990), there is no evidence to support claims that this species occurs in the Ryukyu Islands
. The type locality given is "Japan".
rock outcroppings.
that uses its excellent camouflage to hide itself in vegetation or leaf litter. It hunts and eats mainly rodents, but also small birds, lizards, and insects. It is often found in and around farmland due to the associated rodent populations.
, another pitviper, are the most venomous snakes in Japan. The venom's lethality as measured by LD50 in mice following intraperitoneal injection
is in the range 0.3 mg/kg to 1.22 mg/kg. The venom mostly contains haemolytic
toxins, but it also has two neurotoxin
s—an alpha-toxin that is a post-synaptic inhibitor and a beta-toxin that is a pre-synaptic inhibitor. Because the beta-toxin acts pre-synaptically, its effects cannot be blocked or treated by anticholinesterases. The venom contains an anticoagulant
, mamushi L-amino-acid oxidase
(M-LAO). It also contains the peptide ablomin
which is highly similar in amino acid sequence to that of the venom, helothermine
, of the beaded lizard
(Heloderma horridum).
(see, e.g. Camostat
). In common with many other venomous snakes, the mamushi is highly resistant to its own venom because of various neutralising factors present in its sera including phospholipase A2
(PLA2) inhibitors; these and other inhibitors are the target of antivenom development.
Every year, 2000-3000 people in Japan are bitten by mamushi, severe bites require intensive care, and approximately 10 victims die. There have been case reports of renal failure, visual disturbances, palsy
, and miscarriage in pregnant women.
In one study in Japan, mamushi bite victims required a median duration of 7 days of treatment in hospital followed by a median of 31 days of out-patient treatment, and the time to achieve a full recovery was even longer, taking up to several months. The treatment protocol involved incision of the wound for exclusion of the venom, and injection of mamushi antivenom.
. However, the fifth subspecies has also been described as a species: Gloydius ussuriensis
.
This species is similar to the cottonmouths and copperheads (Agkistrodon
sp.) of the Americas, and it was long considered part of the same group (see synonymy).
Venomous snake
"Poisonous snake" redirects here. For true poisonous snakes, see Rhabdophis.Venomous snakes are snakes which have venom glands and specialized teeth for the injection of venom...
pitviper
Crotalinae
The Crotalinae, commonly known as "pit vipers" or crotaline snakes, are a subfamily of venomous vipers found in Asia and the Americas. They are distinguished by the presence of a heat-sensing pit organ located between the eye and the nostril on either side of the head...
species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
found in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
, and Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
. There are four subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
including the nominate subspecies described here.
This species and the Okinawan habu
Okinawan habu
Okinawan habu may refer to:* Trimeresurus flavoviridis, a.k.a. the Kume Shima habu, a venomous pitviper found in the Ryukyu Islands of Japan.* Ovophis okinavensis, a.k.a. the himehabu, a venomous pitviper found in the Ryukyu Islands of Japan....
are the most venomous snakes in Japan. Every year, 2000–3000 people in Japan are bitten by mamushi, bite victims typically require one week of treatment in hospital, severe bites require intensive care, and approximately 10 victims die.
Description
The average length of mature individuals is 45–81 cm; the longest specimen ever recorded had a length of 91 cm.The body pattern consists of a pale gray, reddish-brown or yellow-brown background, overlaid with a series of irregularly-shaped lateral blotches. These blotches are bordered with black and often have lighter centers. The head is dark brown or black, with beige or pale-gray sides.
Common names
The common name in English is mamushi, or Japanese mamushi. The common name in Japanese is . In Korea, it is known as 살무사 (salmusa).Geographic range
It is found in ChinaChina
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
, and Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
. It is the most common snake in Japan. According to Gloyd and Conant (1990), there is no evidence to support claims that this species occurs in the Ryukyu Islands
Ryukyu Islands
The , also known as the , is a chain of islands in the western Pacific, on the eastern limit of the East China Sea and to the southwest of the island of Kyushu in Japan. From about 1829 until the mid 20th century, they were alternately called Luchu, Loochoo, or Lewchew, akin to the Mandarin...
. The type locality given is "Japan".
Habitat
It occurs in a range of habitats, including swamps, marshes, meadows, open woodland, rocky hillsides, and montaneMontane
In biogeography, montane is the highland area located below the subalpine zone. Montane regions generally have cooler temperatures and often have higher rainfall than the adjacent lowland regions, and are frequently home to distinct communities of plants and animals.The term "montane" means "of the...
rock outcroppings.
Feeding
It is typically an ambush predatorAmbush predator
Ambush predators or sit-and-wait predators are carnivorous animals that capture prey by stealth or cunning, not by speed or necessarily by strength. These organisms usually hide motionless and wait for prey to come within striking distance. They are often camouflaged, and may be solitary...
that uses its excellent camouflage to hide itself in vegetation or leaf litter. It hunts and eats mainly rodents, but also small birds, lizards, and insects. It is often found in and around farmland due to the associated rodent populations.
Characteristics
The venom of this species varies very little among Japan, China, and Korea in terms of both its potency and its effects. According to Yoshimitsu (2005), this species and the Okinawan habuOkinawan habu
Okinawan habu may refer to:* Trimeresurus flavoviridis, a.k.a. the Kume Shima habu, a venomous pitviper found in the Ryukyu Islands of Japan.* Ovophis okinavensis, a.k.a. the himehabu, a venomous pitviper found in the Ryukyu Islands of Japan....
, another pitviper, are the most venomous snakes in Japan. The venom's lethality as measured by LD50 in mice following intraperitoneal injection
Intraperitoneal injection
Intraperitoneal injection or IP injection is the injection of a substance into the peritoneum . IP injection is more often applied to animals than humans...
is in the range 0.3 mg/kg to 1.22 mg/kg. The venom mostly contains haemolytic
Hemolysis
Hemolysis —from the Greek meaning "blood" and meaning a "loosing", "setting free" or "releasing"—is the rupturing of erythrocytes and the release of their contents into surrounding fluid...
toxins, but it also has two neurotoxin
Neurotoxin
A neurotoxin is a toxin that acts specifically on nerve cells , usually by interacting with membrane proteins such as ion channels. Some sources are more general, and define the effect of neurotoxins as occurring at nerve tissue...
s—an alpha-toxin that is a post-synaptic inhibitor and a beta-toxin that is a pre-synaptic inhibitor. Because the beta-toxin acts pre-synaptically, its effects cannot be blocked or treated by anticholinesterases. The venom contains an anticoagulant
Anticoagulant
An anticoagulant is a substance that prevents coagulation of blood. A group of pharmaceuticals called anticoagulants can be used in vivo as a medication for thrombotic disorders. Some anticoagulants are used in medical equipment, such as test tubes, blood transfusion bags, and renal dialysis...
, mamushi L-amino-acid oxidase
L-amino-acid oxidase
In enzymology, a L-amino-acid oxidase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reactionThe 3 substrates of this enzyme are L-amino acid, H2O, and O2, whereas its 3 products are 2-oxo acid, NH3, and H2O2....
(M-LAO). It also contains the peptide ablomin
Ablomin
Ablomin is a toxin present in the venom of the Japanese Mamushi snake, which blocks L-type voltage-gated calcium channels.- Etymology :The protein ablomin is a component of the venom of the Japanese Mamushi snake, Gloydius blomhoffi...
which is highly similar in amino acid sequence to that of the venom, helothermine
Helothermine
Helothermine is a toxin from the venom of the Mexican beaded lizard Heloderma horridum horridum. Helothermine inhibits ryanodine receptors, calcium channels and potassium channels...
, of the beaded lizard
Beaded lizard
The Beaded lizard is a species of venomous lizard found principally in Mexico and southern Guatemala. Along with its congener, the Gila monster , it is the only lizard to have evolved an overt venom delivery system, and has long been considered the only venomous lizard...
(Heloderma horridum).
Treatments for envenomations
There is an effective antivenom manufactured in both Japan and China. Its effectiveness is increased when co-administered with a serine protease inhibitor such as FOYFoy
Foy, as a person, may refer to:* Foy D. Kohler, American diplomat* brian d foy, American computer programmer and author* Bryan Foy, American film director and producer who was earlier one of the "Seven Little Foys"...
(see, e.g. Camostat
Camostat
Camostat is a serine protease inhibitor....
). In common with many other venomous snakes, the mamushi is highly resistant to its own venom because of various neutralising factors present in its sera including phospholipase A2
Phospholipase A2
Phospholipases A2 are enzymes that release fatty acids from the second carbon group of glycerol. This particular phospholipase specifically recognizes the sn-2 acyl bond of phospholipids and catalytically hydrolyzes the bond releasing arachidonic acid and lysophospholipids...
(PLA2) inhibitors; these and other inhibitors are the target of antivenom development.
Every year, 2000-3000 people in Japan are bitten by mamushi, severe bites require intensive care, and approximately 10 victims die. There have been case reports of renal failure, visual disturbances, palsy
Palsy
In medicine, palsy is the paralysis of a body part, often accompanied by loss of sensation and by uncontrolled body movements, such as shaking. Medical conditions involving palsy include cerebral palsy , brachial palsy , and Bell's palsy ....
, and miscarriage in pregnant women.
In one study in Japan, mamushi bite victims required a median duration of 7 days of treatment in hospital followed by a median of 31 days of out-patient treatment, and the time to achieve a full recovery was even longer, taking up to several months. The treatment protocol involved incision of the wound for exclusion of the venom, and injection of mamushi antivenom.
Subspecies
| Subspecies | Taxon author | Common name | Geographic range |
|---|---|---|---|
| G. b. blomhoffii | (Boie Heinrich Boie Heinrich Boie was a German zoologist. He was the brother of Friedrich Boie. In the field of herpetology they described 49 new species of reptiles and several new species of amphibians.... , 1826) |
Japanese mamushi | Japan Japan Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south... , including most of the smaller islands. |
| G. b. brevicaudus Gloydius blomhoffii brevicaudus Gloydius blomhoffii brevicaudus is a venomous pitviper subspecies found in China and the Korean Peninsula.-Description:Adults are relatively stout with a broad head and a short tail. The largest male examined by Gloyd and Conant was 71 cm in total length of which the tail was 9 cm, the... |
(Stejneger Leonhard Hess Stejneger Leonhard Hess Stejneger was a Norwegian-born American ornithologist, herpetologist and zoologist. Stejneger specialized in vertebrate natural history studies. He gained his greatest reputation with reptiles and amphibians.... , 1907) |
Short-tailed mamushi | China China Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture... (Manchuria Manchuria Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast... ) and the Korean Peninsula Korean Peninsula The Korean Peninsula is a peninsula in East Asia. It extends southwards for about 684 miles from continental Asia into the Pacific Ocean and is surrounded by the Sea of Japan to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the west, the Korea Strait connecting the first two bodies of water.Until the end of... . |
| G. b. dubitatus | (Gloyd Howard K. Gloyd Howard Kay Gloyd was an American herpetologist who is credited with describing several new species of reptile, such as the Florida Cottonmouth, Agkistrodon piscivorus conanti... , 1977) |
Tung Ling mamushi | Restricted to Hebei Province Hubei ' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting... , China. |
| G. b. siniticus | (Gloyd, 1977) | Yangtze mamushi | Type locality: China, from Shandong Shandong ' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese... , Jiang Su Jiangsu ' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name... and Anhui Anhui Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny... provinces, south to the Ch'ang Chiang Basin Yangtze River The Yangtze, Yangzi or Cháng Jiāng is the longest river in Asia, and the third-longest in the world. It flows for from the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai eastward across southwest, central and eastern China before emptying into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is also one of the... and eastern Sichuan Sichuan ' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu... , Jiangxi Jiangxi ' is a southern province in the People's Republic of China. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze River in the north into hillier areas in the south, it shares a border with Anhui to the north, Zhejiang to the northeast, Fujian to the east, Guangdong to the south, Hunan to the west, and Hubei to... and Hunan Hunan ' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting... . |
Taxonomy
There are five subspecies—the four mentioned in the table above, plus A. b. ussuriensis, which is found in RussiaRussia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
. However, the fifth subspecies has also been described as a species: Gloydius ussuriensis
Gloydius ussuriensis
Gloydius ussuriensis is a venomous pitviper species found in far east Russia, northeastern China and the Korean Peninsula. No subspecies are currently recognized.-Description: Adult males are 37-63 cm in length, while adult females are 41-64.7 cm...
.
This species is similar to the cottonmouths and copperheads (Agkistrodon
Agkistrodon
Agkistrodon is a genus of venomous pit vipers found in North America from the United States south to northern Costa Rica. The name is derived from the Greek words ἄγκιστρον 'fishhook' and ὁδοὐς 'tooth', and is likely a reference to the fangs...
sp.) of the Americas, and it was long considered part of the same group (see synonymy).
External links
- Gloydius blomhoffii at the Encyclopedia of Japanese Reptiles. Accessed 20 December 2007.