George Starkey (alchemist)
Encyclopedia
George Starkey, born George Stirk (1628–1665), was an American alchemist
, medical practitioner, and writer of numerous commentaries and chemical treatises that were widely circulated in Europe and influenced prominent men of science, including Robert Boyle
and Isaac Newton
. After relocating from New England to London, England in 1650, Starkey is presumed to have begun writing under the pseudonym Eirenaeus Philalethes
, although the connection between Starkey and Philalethes has never been definitively established. Starkey remained in England and continued his career in medicine and alchemy until he became a victim of the Great Plague of London
in 1665.
, the first of at least five children of George Stirk, a Scottish minister and devoted Calvinist, and Elizabeth Painter. During his early years in Bermuda, Starkey displayed interest in natural history
, as evidenced by his written entomological
observations of various insects indigenous to Bermuda. After the death of his father in 1637, Starkey was sent to New England
, where he continued his early education before enrolling at Harvard College
in 1643. Introduced to alchemical theory, he would later stylize himself as the “Philosopher by Fire.” After graduating from Harvard Starkey resided in the Boston
area and earned a living practicing medicine while at the same time experimenting in chemical technology.
Despite his successful medical practice, Starkey emigrated to London, England in November 1650 with his wife, Susanna Stoughton, whom he had married earlier that year. Susanna is believed to be the eldest daughter of Colonel Israel Stoughton
, and sister of William Stoughton
, a future governor of Massachusetts. It is not entirely known why Starkey decided to leave New England. One clue points to his interest in alchemy and chemical technology. It is known that Starkey was acquiring great skill at building ovens to facilitate alchemical experiments. However, he complained that the region offered unsuitable material needed for their operation, and therefore believed that relocating to England could provide access to better material and higher quality laboratory implements as well. Around this same time he changed his surname to Starkey for reasons that are unknown.
Once in England, Starkey’s reputation as an alchemist and chymical furnace maker grew among the scientific community and he soon acquired a network of colleagues from the circle of friends and correspondents of Samuel Hartlib
— a group of social reformers, utopians, and natural philosophers. Within a few years, however, Starkey found himself in financial trouble and was consequently incarcerated because of debt—possibly twice sometime in late 1653 and again in mid-1654. Imprisoned for a brief period of time, Starkey returned to the practice of alchemy and medicine upon his release in late 1654. Additionally, he wrote and published a number of popular treatises. Yet, his most important work was written under several pseudonyms during the period prior to imprisonment when he was associated with the Hartlib circle
. The most famous of these works, the Introitus apertus ad occlusum regis palatium, was published in 1667 after his death.
that was important to his alchemical work throughout his career.
Jan Baptist van Helmont
, and had been tutored in the practical applications of metallurgy. His medical practice appears to have been highly successful, which included iatrochemistry
. Despite his flourishing practice, Starkey decided England could provide better access to the tools required by an alchemist, which prompted him to sail for London with his wife in November 1650.
Upon his arrival in London, Starkey’s credentials as an alchemist were quickly established. He acquired immediate acclaim in England as an alchemical savant, due in part to the well-connected network of scientific practitioners and colleagues he had been associated with in New England. It was at this time that the transplanted New England alchemist became involved with the Hartlib circle and the fictitious identity of Eirenaeus Philalethes (a peaceful lover of truth) emerged as a result of currents swirling within the group. Samuel Hartlib was a patron and promoter of applied science, including alchemy and iatrochemistry. Yet, there were individuals within this circle dedicated to preserving secrecy and the protection of knowledge, which may have initially inspired Starkey’s alternate identity.
Starkey’s move to London was followed by remarkable success in establishing a medical practice and producing and administering medicinal remedies to patients, including Robert Boyle. However, despite his success, Starkey abandoned his patients in 1651 in order to pursue the “secrets” of alchemy, which included the production of pharmaceuticals and the transmutation of metallic substances. For example, Starkey’s “sophic mercury” was an amalgam of antimony, silver, and mercury, which could dissolve gold into a mixture that when heated, produced the mythical philosopher's stone
, an agent for transmuting base metals into noble ones. It is also known that Starkey tutored Boyle in the practice of chymistry and experimentation, although Boyle never acknowledged Starkey's tutelage.
As the inventor of curative drugs and philosophical mercuries, it is reasonable to assume that Starkey was concerned with guarding these inventions and preserving his trade secrets. The pseudonym ‘Philalethes’ allowed him to accomplish this by creating a fictitious identity under which a series of manuscripts and tracts were produced that proclaimed these discoveries while advertising that access to concealed alchemical knowledge might be obtained through Starkey, a ‘friend’ of Philalethes and guardian of his manuscripts. It is also believed that Starkey’s interest in concealing his work was driven by a desire to fashion himself as the “master of secrets” whose discoveries were “divinely sanctioned revelations.” Certainly this might lift Starkey’s socioprofessional standing in the minds of influential patrons within the Hartlib circle.
A few years after arriving in London, Starkey began to suffer from his own success. A variety of projects, from the manufacture of perfumes and pharmaceuticals to the production of sophic mercuries, were pulling him in different directions, straining professional relationships, and failed to generate sufficient income. The cost to personally fund these projects was leaving him financially unstable as debts increased. Finally, in 1653–1654, Starkey’s creditors caught up with him. He was imprisoned twice for debt, and when not in prison, he avoided creditors by concealing his whereabouts. To make matters worse, he had lost the support of the Hartlib circle. It was necessary that a beleaguered Starkey reestablish his financial footing, restore his reputation, and attract new patronage.
The final years of Starkey’s life were devoted to resurrecting his medical practice and manufacturing income-producing medicines. However, he never wandered far from his chymistry lab and his quest for Van Helmont’s alchahest
or the philosophers’ stone. No doubt he continued his search for the perfect liquor alchahest, a medicinal solvent whose purpose was similar to theriac
, an antidotal compound that was consumed in order to preserve health and prevent illness. Starkey’s success in producing his alchahest was limited, and his quest for the philosophers’ stone never came to fruition. Although he continued to produce medical treatises, three political pamphlets that he wrote in 1660 along with public disputes he engaged in with other medical practitioners and the Royal College of Physicians further tainted his career.
In 1665, the plague found London and George Starkey. For all of his belief in the ability of the Helmontian medicines to cure disease and prevent illness, the Helmontian alchahest Starkey prepared to combat the plague was ineffective. To the end, Starkey remained faithful to the Flemish iatrochemist that he revered.
Works published under the name of Philalethes.
Alchemist
An alchemist is a person who practices alchemy. Alchemist may also refer to:-People and groups:*The Alchemist , a hip hop music producer and rapper*Alchemist , an Australian progressive metal band...
, medical practitioner, and writer of numerous commentaries and chemical treatises that were widely circulated in Europe and influenced prominent men of science, including Robert Boyle
Robert Boyle
Robert Boyle FRS was a 17th century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor, also noted for his writings in theology. He has been variously described as English, Irish, or Anglo-Irish, his father having come to Ireland from England during the time of the English plantations of...
and Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton PRS was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived."...
. After relocating from New England to London, England in 1650, Starkey is presumed to have begun writing under the pseudonym Eirenaeus Philalethes
Eirenaeus Philalethes
Eirenaeus Philalethes was a 17th century alchemist and the author of many influential works. These works were read by such luminaries as Isaac Newton, John Locke, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz...
, although the connection between Starkey and Philalethes has never been definitively established. Starkey remained in England and continued his career in medicine and alchemy until he became a victim of the Great Plague of London
Great Plague of London
The Great Plague was a massive outbreak of disease in the Kingdom of England that killed an estimated 100,000 people, 20% of London's population. The disease is identified as bubonic plague, an infection by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, transmitted through a flea vector...
in 1665.
Early life
Starkey was born in BermudaBermuda
Bermuda is a British overseas territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. Located off the east coast of the United States, its nearest landmass is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, about to the west-northwest. It is about south of Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, and northeast of Miami, Florida...
, the first of at least five children of George Stirk, a Scottish minister and devoted Calvinist, and Elizabeth Painter. During his early years in Bermuda, Starkey displayed interest in natural history
Natural history
Natural history is the scientific research of plants or animals, leaning more towards observational rather than experimental methods of study, and encompasses more research published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the natural sciences, natural history is the systematic study...
, as evidenced by his written entomological
Entomology
Entomology is the scientific study of insects, a branch of arthropodology...
observations of various insects indigenous to Bermuda. After the death of his father in 1637, Starkey was sent to New England
New England
New England is a region in the northeastern corner of the United States consisting of the six states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut...
, where he continued his early education before enrolling at Harvard College
Harvard College
Harvard College, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, is one of two schools within Harvard University granting undergraduate degrees...
in 1643. Introduced to alchemical theory, he would later stylize himself as the “Philosopher by Fire.” After graduating from Harvard Starkey resided in the Boston
Boston
Boston is the capital of and largest city in Massachusetts, and is one of the oldest cities in the United States. The largest city in New England, Boston is regarded as the unofficial "Capital of New England" for its economic and cultural impact on the entire New England region. The city proper had...
area and earned a living practicing medicine while at the same time experimenting in chemical technology.
Despite his successful medical practice, Starkey emigrated to London, England in November 1650 with his wife, Susanna Stoughton, whom he had married earlier that year. Susanna is believed to be the eldest daughter of Colonel Israel Stoughton
Israel Stoughton
Israel Stoughton was an early English colonist in Massachusetts, and later a Parliamentarian officer in the First English Civil War.-Life:...
, and sister of William Stoughton
William Stoughton
William Stoughton may refer to:* William Stoughton , judge in charge of what has come to be known as the Salem Witch Trials* William Stoughton...
, a future governor of Massachusetts. It is not entirely known why Starkey decided to leave New England. One clue points to his interest in alchemy and chemical technology. It is known that Starkey was acquiring great skill at building ovens to facilitate alchemical experiments. However, he complained that the region offered unsuitable material needed for their operation, and therefore believed that relocating to England could provide access to better material and higher quality laboratory implements as well. Around this same time he changed his surname to Starkey for reasons that are unknown.
Once in England, Starkey’s reputation as an alchemist and chymical furnace maker grew among the scientific community and he soon acquired a network of colleagues from the circle of friends and correspondents of Samuel Hartlib
Samuel Hartlib
Samuel Hartlib was a German-British polymath. An active promoter and expert writer in many fields, he was interested in science, medicine, agriculture, politics, and education. He settled in England, where he married and died...
— a group of social reformers, utopians, and natural philosophers. Within a few years, however, Starkey found himself in financial trouble and was consequently incarcerated because of debt—possibly twice sometime in late 1653 and again in mid-1654. Imprisoned for a brief period of time, Starkey returned to the practice of alchemy and medicine upon his release in late 1654. Additionally, he wrote and published a number of popular treatises. Yet, his most important work was written under several pseudonyms during the period prior to imprisonment when he was associated with the Hartlib circle
Hartlib Circle
The Hartlib Circle refers primarily to the correspondence network set up in Western and Central Europe by Samuel Hartlib, an intelligencer based in London, and his associates, in the period 1630 to 1660.-Structure:J. T. Young writes:...
. The most famous of these works, the Introitus apertus ad occlusum regis palatium, was published in 1667 after his death.
Education
Little is known of Starkey’s early education. Prior to the death of his father in 1637, Starkey most likely was tutored, perhaps by his parents or learned acquaintances of the family. After the death of the elder Stirk, Starkey was sent to New England around 1639 to continue his studies. In 1643 he matriculated at Harvard College, where he was exposed to a core curriculum in the classical languages and theology in addition to courses in logic, physics, mathematics, politics, and history. His studies soon focused on chemical philosophy and alchemical theory. Starkey earned his A.B. in 1646 and his A.M. by 1649, although the exact date is uncertain. During his years at Harvard, Starkey was introduced to alchemy through the physics curriculum, which included subjects on metallic transmutation and potable gold. In addition, he acquired a thorough understanding of corpuscular matter theoryCorpuscularianism
Corpuscularianism is a physical theory that supposed all matter to be composed of minute particles, which became important in the Seventeenth century. Among the leading corpuscularians were Rene Descartes, Robert Boyle, and John Locke....
that was important to his alchemical work throughout his career.
Career
During his final years at Harvard, Starkey became increasingly occupied with the practice of medicine. He was a devoted follower of the Flemish iatrochemistIatrochemistry
Iatrochemistry is a branch of both chemistry and medicine. Having its roots in alchemy, iatrochemistry seeks to provide chemical solutions to diseases and medical ailments....
Jan Baptist van Helmont
Jan Baptist van Helmont
Jan Baptist van Helmont was an early modern period Flemish chemist, physiologist, and physician. He worked during the years just after Paracelsus and iatrochemistry, and is sometimes considered to be "the founder of pneumatic chemistry"...
, and had been tutored in the practical applications of metallurgy. His medical practice appears to have been highly successful, which included iatrochemistry
Iatrochemistry
Iatrochemistry is a branch of both chemistry and medicine. Having its roots in alchemy, iatrochemistry seeks to provide chemical solutions to diseases and medical ailments....
. Despite his flourishing practice, Starkey decided England could provide better access to the tools required by an alchemist, which prompted him to sail for London with his wife in November 1650.
Upon his arrival in London, Starkey’s credentials as an alchemist were quickly established. He acquired immediate acclaim in England as an alchemical savant, due in part to the well-connected network of scientific practitioners and colleagues he had been associated with in New England. It was at this time that the transplanted New England alchemist became involved with the Hartlib circle and the fictitious identity of Eirenaeus Philalethes (a peaceful lover of truth) emerged as a result of currents swirling within the group. Samuel Hartlib was a patron and promoter of applied science, including alchemy and iatrochemistry. Yet, there were individuals within this circle dedicated to preserving secrecy and the protection of knowledge, which may have initially inspired Starkey’s alternate identity.
Starkey’s move to London was followed by remarkable success in establishing a medical practice and producing and administering medicinal remedies to patients, including Robert Boyle. However, despite his success, Starkey abandoned his patients in 1651 in order to pursue the “secrets” of alchemy, which included the production of pharmaceuticals and the transmutation of metallic substances. For example, Starkey’s “sophic mercury” was an amalgam of antimony, silver, and mercury, which could dissolve gold into a mixture that when heated, produced the mythical philosopher's stone
Philosopher's stone
The philosopher's stone is a legendary alchemical substance said to be capable of turning base metals into gold or silver. It was also sometimes believed to be an elixir of life, useful for rejuvenation and possibly for achieving immortality. For many centuries, it was the most sought-after goal...
, an agent for transmuting base metals into noble ones. It is also known that Starkey tutored Boyle in the practice of chymistry and experimentation, although Boyle never acknowledged Starkey's tutelage.
As the inventor of curative drugs and philosophical mercuries, it is reasonable to assume that Starkey was concerned with guarding these inventions and preserving his trade secrets. The pseudonym ‘Philalethes’ allowed him to accomplish this by creating a fictitious identity under which a series of manuscripts and tracts were produced that proclaimed these discoveries while advertising that access to concealed alchemical knowledge might be obtained through Starkey, a ‘friend’ of Philalethes and guardian of his manuscripts. It is also believed that Starkey’s interest in concealing his work was driven by a desire to fashion himself as the “master of secrets” whose discoveries were “divinely sanctioned revelations.” Certainly this might lift Starkey’s socioprofessional standing in the minds of influential patrons within the Hartlib circle.
A few years after arriving in London, Starkey began to suffer from his own success. A variety of projects, from the manufacture of perfumes and pharmaceuticals to the production of sophic mercuries, were pulling him in different directions, straining professional relationships, and failed to generate sufficient income. The cost to personally fund these projects was leaving him financially unstable as debts increased. Finally, in 1653–1654, Starkey’s creditors caught up with him. He was imprisoned twice for debt, and when not in prison, he avoided creditors by concealing his whereabouts. To make matters worse, he had lost the support of the Hartlib circle. It was necessary that a beleaguered Starkey reestablish his financial footing, restore his reputation, and attract new patronage.
The final years of Starkey’s life were devoted to resurrecting his medical practice and manufacturing income-producing medicines. However, he never wandered far from his chymistry lab and his quest for Van Helmont’s alchahest
Alkahest
Alkahest is a hypothetical universal solvent, having the power to dissolve every other substance, including gold. It was much sought after by alchemists for what they thought would be its invaluable medicinal qualities. The name is believed to have been invented by Paracelsus from Switzerland,...
or the philosophers’ stone. No doubt he continued his search for the perfect liquor alchahest, a medicinal solvent whose purpose was similar to theriac
Theriac
Theriac or theriaca was a medical concoction originally formulated by the Greeks in the 1st century AD and became popular throughout the ancient world as far away as China and India via the trading links of the Silk Route...
, an antidotal compound that was consumed in order to preserve health and prevent illness. Starkey’s success in producing his alchahest was limited, and his quest for the philosophers’ stone never came to fruition. Although he continued to produce medical treatises, three political pamphlets that he wrote in 1660 along with public disputes he engaged in with other medical practitioners and the Royal College of Physicians further tainted his career.
In 1665, the plague found London and George Starkey. For all of his belief in the ability of the Helmontian medicines to cure disease and prevent illness, the Helmontian alchahest Starkey prepared to combat the plague was ineffective. To the end, Starkey remained faithful to the Flemish iatrochemist that he revered.
Historical Legacy
George Starkey’s alchemical laboratory expertise and formalized methodology were highly respected by the scientific community and became the basis for later practices in eighteenth-century experimental chymistry. His influence on Boyle's work and discoveries in chymistry is indisputable. It is perhaps the survival of Starkey’s laboratory journals that is most important, for they provide the least opaque window through which to view the laboratory operations and methodological practices of a seventeenth-century alchemist. Also, Starkey’s written works, especially under the name Philalethes, were widely circulated and enormously popular. They were read by notable men of science in the seventeenth century and well into the eighteenth century, to include Boyle, Locke, Leibniz, and Newton. Indeed, his writings were influential in the emerging field of chymistry by advancing the doctrine that chemical phenomena are the result of the interaction of insensible particles accompanied by chemical forces. Although George Starkey will probably never be regarded as a canonical figure in early modern science, his achievements nevertheless are significant and contribute to a wider understanding of the nature of science during this period and its historical development.Original Published Works
Works published under George Starkey’s name:- The Reformed Commonwealth of Bees (1655).
- Nature's Explication and Helmont's Vindication; or a short and sure Way to a long and sound life (London, 1657).
- Pyrotechny asserted and illustrated (London, 1658).
- The admirable efficacy of oyl which is made of Sulphur-Vive (1660).
- The dignity of kinship asserted (1660).
- Britains Triumph FOR HER Imparallel’d Deliverance (1660).
- Royal and other innoent blood crying aloud to heaven for due vengeance (1660).
- An appendix to the Unlearned Alchimist Wherein is contained the true Receipt of that Excellent Diaphoretick and Diuretick PILL (1663).
- George Starkey’s Pill vindicated From the unlearned Alchymist and all other pretenders, (undated).
- A brief Examination and Censure OF Several Medicines (1664).
- ‘A smart Scourge for a silly, sawcy Fool, an answer to letter at the end of a pamphlet of Lionell Lockyer (1664).
- An Epistolar discourse to the Learned and Deservingauthor of Galeno-pale (1665).
- Loimologia A Consolatory Advice And some brief observations Concerning the Present Pest, 1665.
- Liquor Alchahest, or a discourse of that Immortal Dissolvent of Paracelsus & Helmont, 1675.
Works published under the name of Philalethes.
- The Marrow OF ALCHEMY Being an Experimental Treatise, 1654.
- SIR GEORGE RIPLYE’S EPISTLE TO King Edward unfolded, 1655.
- INTROITUS APERTUS AD OCCLUSUM REGIS PALATIUM; AUTORE ANONYMO PHILALETHA PHILOSOPHO, 1667.
- TRES TRACTATUS DE METALLORUM TRANSMUTATIONE, 1669.
- ENARRATIO METHODICA TRIUM GEBRI MEDICINARUM, 1678.
- Experimenta de Praeparatione Mercurii Sophici, 1678.
- Vade-Mecum Philosophicum sive Breve Manuductorium ad Campum Sophiae, 1678.
- Ripley Reviv’d: OR, AN EXPOSITION UPON Sir George Ripley’s Hermetico-Poetical WORKS, 1678.
- A Breviary of ALCHEMY; OR A COMMENTARY UPON Sir GEORGE RIPLEY’S RECAPITULATION, 1678.
- EXPERIMENTS FOR THE PREPARATION OF THE Sophick Mercury, 1678.
- AN EXPOSITION UPON THE First Six Gates OF Sir GEORGE RIPLEY’S Compound of Alchymie, 1678.
- AN EXPOSITION UPON Sir George Ripley’s PREFACE, 1678.
- AN EXPOSITION Upon Sir George Ripley’s EPISTLE To King Edward IV, 1678.
- AN EXPOSITION UPON Sir George Ripley’s VISION, 1678.
- THE SECRET OF THE IMMORTAL LIQUOR CALLED ALKAHEST OR IGNIS-AQUA By EIRENAEUS PHILALETHES, 1683.