Frightful Cave
Encyclopedia
Frightful Cave is a pre-Columbian
archaeological site located in the state of Coahuila
in northern Mexico
. It was occupied on several occasions during the Archaic period by what seem to be nomadic hunter-gatherer
groups and is an important source of archaeological evidence concerning the ancient desert tradition of the Central Mexican highlands.
in the Northern Arid
Zone of Mexico
, Frightful Cave is surrounded by desert. The area is “largely too arid and rainfall is too undependable for cultivation," although edible plants can be found
and the mountain ranges are covered in pine and oak forest. Many groups seem to have lived in the Coahuila
region despite this arid climate, but they did not practice agriculture
. The early desert culture started here in the Archaic period has been identified as one of the roots of later Mesoamerican cultures, and lasted through to the 19th century among Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin (such as the Paiute
and the Shoshone
) and among some native peoples of the Mexican Northern Arid Zone (such as the Seri).
and the Southern United States
, focusing on Coahuila
in the 1950s and 1960s. Radio-carbon dating places the Frightful Cave artifacts between approximately 7500 BCE
and 185 CE
.
List of findings
These items were found across three strata
, with certain items unique to each. For example, while sandals
were found in each level, the hair was found only in the earliest stratum
. Prepared floors were discovered in the earliest two levels of the cave
, which were created by “bringing in earth that was then consolidated by water and probably tamped.” Although thin, they served the function of smoothing the cave
floor. Fireplaces seem to have been distributed at random. Interestingly, although they were found in many other caves in the area, Taylor reports that there were no arrow
parts found in Frightful Cave, “whose occupation was probably too early.”
allowed for temporal analysis of the cave’s
inhabitants, while comparisons to other caves
in the area allowed for spatial analysis. Spatially, it has been found that there was likely cultural
exchange between various nomadic groups
both within the Coahuila
complex and across nearby regions.
Chronological trends have also been observed, indicating the repeated occupation by culturally
similar groups with evolving cultural
practices. In particular, changes in the use of the space within the cave
suggest a changing way of life. Taylor notes that while the bottom two strata
had tamped floors, relatively low levels of bat guano and displayed “a strong tendency to deposit sandals in the farthest recesses of the cave,” in the later stratum no floor had been prepared, there was relatively more bat guano
, and sandals
were deposited in the center of the cave
. These trends are thought to indicate groups’ changing duration of stay, from “more or less constant in the lower levels” to “increasingly intermittent in the upper levels,” since it appears that less effort was put in to keep a clean living space. Changes of this nature would make sense if groups no longer spent such long periods in the cave
. This development has been linked to a known increase in aridity
in the region which may have resulted in a new distribution of food sources.
The argument for changing migration
based on new patterns of subsistence is a strong one, as groups in the desert tradition are widely believed to have been nomads
who would have settled in various areas as local wild foodstuffs became available. Shafer has theorized that Frightful Cave may have been part of a seasonal round made by these hunter-gatherer groups
, which, along with other caves
in the area, would have been inhabited from spring
through early summer
, “when foods such as flowers, bulbs, fruits and plums were available.” Similarly, Taylor posits water accessibility to be the determining factor of such groups’ migratory
patterns, meaning shifts thereof may also be accounted for by increasing aridity. Changes in the style and construction of the radiocarbon-dated sandals
also suggest a certain cultural discontinuity in the later occupation of Frightful Cave.
There is almost no evidence concerning the religious
or artistic
cultural lives of Frightful Cave’s inhabitants, with the exception being the human hair found deposited at the back of the cave
in the first stratum
. The hairs appear to have “been cut at regular intervals of about one month” based on their cut ends and lengths. Archival
evidence suggests this may have been a mourning practice
, but the purpose of such ritual
handling of hair has not been concretely determined.
Pre-Columbian era
The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during...
archaeological site located in the state of Coahuila
Coahuila
Coahuila, formally Coahuila de Zaragoza , officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Coahuila de Zaragoza is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico...
in northern Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
. It was occupied on several occasions during the Archaic period by what seem to be nomadic hunter-gatherer
Hunter-gatherer
A hunter-gatherer or forage society is one in which most or all food is obtained from wild plants and animals, in contrast to agricultural societies which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was the ancestral subsistence mode of Homo, and all modern humans were...
groups and is an important source of archaeological evidence concerning the ancient desert tradition of the Central Mexican highlands.
Overview
Located in the Sierra Madre OrientalSierra Madre Oriental
The Sierra Madre Oriental is a mountain range in northeastern Mexico.-Setting:Spanning the Sierra Madre Oriental runs from Coahuila south through Nuevo León, southwest Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, and Hidalgo to northern Puebla, where it joins with the east-west running Eje Volcánico...
in the Northern Arid
Arid
A region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or even preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life...
Zone of Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
, Frightful Cave is surrounded by desert. The area is “largely too arid and rainfall is too undependable for cultivation," although edible plants can be found
Foraging
- Definitions and significance of foraging behavior :Foraging is the act of searching for and exploiting food resources. It affects an animal's fitness because it plays an important role in an animal's ability to survive and reproduce...
and the mountain ranges are covered in pine and oak forest. Many groups seem to have lived in the Coahuila
Coahuila
Coahuila, formally Coahuila de Zaragoza , officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Coahuila de Zaragoza is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico...
region despite this arid climate, but they did not practice agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
. The early desert culture started here in the Archaic period has been identified as one of the roots of later Mesoamerican cultures, and lasted through to the 19th century among Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin (such as the Paiute
Paiute
Paiute refers to three closely related groups of Native Americans — the Northern Paiute of California, Idaho, Nevada and Oregon; the Owens Valley Paiute of California and Nevada; and the Southern Paiute of Arizona, southeastern California and Nevada, and Utah.-Origin of name:The origin of...
and the Shoshone
Shoshone
The Shoshone or Shoshoni are a Native American tribe in the United States with three large divisions: the Northern, the Western and the Eastern....
) and among some native peoples of the Mexican Northern Arid Zone (such as the Seri).
Discovery and excavation
The archaeologist Walter W. Taylor excavated many sites in Northern MexicoMexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
and the Southern United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, focusing on Coahuila
Coahuila
Coahuila, formally Coahuila de Zaragoza , officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Coahuila de Zaragoza is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico...
in the 1950s and 1960s. Radio-carbon dating places the Frightful Cave artifacts between approximately 7500 BCE
Common Era
Common Era ,abbreviated as CE, is an alternative designation for the calendar era originally introduced by Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century, traditionally identified with Anno Domini .Dates before the year 1 CE are indicated by the usage of BCE, short for Before the Common Era Common Era...
and 185 CE
Common Era
Common Era ,abbreviated as CE, is an alternative designation for the calendar era originally introduced by Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century, traditionally identified with Anno Domini .Dates before the year 1 CE are indicated by the usage of BCE, short for Before the Common Era Common Era...
.
List of findings
- Over 950 fibre sandalsSandalSandals are an open type of outdoor footwearSandal may also refer to:* Sandal Castle, site of the Battle of Wakefield in the Wars of the Roses* Sandal, Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England* Sandal, Afghanistan* Šandal, village in Slovakia...
, fibre ties - One leatherLeatherLeather is a durable and flexible material created via the tanning of putrescible animal rawhide and skin, primarily cattlehide. It can be produced through different manufacturing processes, ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry.-Forms:...
sandalSandalSandals are an open type of outdoor footwearSandal may also refer to:* Sandal Castle, site of the Battle of Wakefield in the Wars of the Roses* Sandal, Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England* Sandal, Afghanistan* Šandal, village in Slovakia...
, fibre ties - One complete twined fibre apronApronAn apron is an outer protective garment that covers primarily the front of the body. It may be worn for hygienic reasons as well as in order to protect clothes from wear and tear. The apron is commonly part of the uniform of several work categories, including waitresses, nurses, and domestic...
, leatherLeatherLeather is a durable and flexible material created via the tanning of putrescible animal rawhide and skin, primarily cattlehide. It can be produced through different manufacturing processes, ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry.-Forms:...
ties - Various scraps of textiles, fibre, leatherLeatherLeather is a durable and flexible material created via the tanning of putrescible animal rawhide and skin, primarily cattlehide. It can be produced through different manufacturing processes, ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry.-Forms:...
, fursFurFur is a synonym for hair, used more in reference to non-human animals, usually mammals; particularly those with extensives body hair coverage. The term is sometimes used to refer to the body hair of an animal as a complete coat, also known as the "pelage". Fur is also used to refer to animal...
, feathersFeatherFeathers are one of the epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer covering, or plumage, on birds and some non-avian theropod dinosaurs. They are considered the most complex integumentary structures found in vertebrates, and indeed a premier example of a complex evolutionary novelty. They... - Several caches of mesquite beansMesquiteMesquite is a leguminous plant of the Prosopis genus found in northern Mexico through the Sonoran Desert and Chihuahuan Deserts, and up into the Southwestern United States as far north as southern Kansas, west to the Colorado Desert in California,and east to the eastern fifth of Texas, where...
in plaited-matting bags - Over 22,000 maguey ‘quids’
- Two items, classified by Taylor as musical rasps
- “A number of prickly pearOpuntiaOpuntia, also known as nopales or paddle cactus , is a genus in the cactus family, Cactaceae.Currently, only prickly pears are included in this genus of about 200 species distributed throughout most of the Americas. Chollas are now separated into the genus Cylindropuntia, which some still consider...
pads, split open and with the ‘open edge’ sewn together to make a passable container” - Several bags of Texas buckeye seeds, and mescal beansMezcalMezcal, or mescal, is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from the maguey plant native to Mexico. The word mezcal comes from Nahuatl metl and ixcalli which mean 'oven cooked agave.'...
, both having narcoticNarcoticThe term narcotic originally referred medically to any psychoactive compound with any sleep-inducing properties. In the United States of America it has since become associated with opioids, commonly morphine and heroin and their derivatives, such as hydrocodone. The term is, today, imprecisely...
qualities - 1,195 pieces of twisted cordage
- Various balls of human hair
- Remains of an aged woman, dressed in a loinclothLoinclothA loincloth is a one-piece male garment, sometimes kept in place by a belt, which covers the genitals and, at least partially, the buttocks.-History and types:Loincloths are being and have been worn:*in societies where no other clothing is needed or wanted...
and sandalsSandalSandals are an open type of outdoor footwearSandal may also refer to:* Sandal Castle, site of the Battle of Wakefield in the Wars of the Roses* Sandal, Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England* Sandal, Afghanistan* Šandal, village in Slovakia...
, wrapped in a mat
These items were found across three strata
Stratum
In geology and related fields, a stratum is a layer of sedimentary rock or soil with internally consistent characteristics that distinguish it from other layers...
, with certain items unique to each. For example, while sandals
Sandal
Sandals are an open type of outdoor footwearSandal may also refer to:* Sandal Castle, site of the Battle of Wakefield in the Wars of the Roses* Sandal, Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England* Sandal, Afghanistan* Šandal, village in Slovakia...
were found in each level, the hair was found only in the earliest stratum
Stratum
In geology and related fields, a stratum is a layer of sedimentary rock or soil with internally consistent characteristics that distinguish it from other layers...
. Prepared floors were discovered in the earliest two levels of the cave
Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. The term applies to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness. The word cave also includes smaller spaces like rock shelters, sea caves, and grottos.Speleology is the science of exploration and study...
, which were created by “bringing in earth that was then consolidated by water and probably tamped.” Although thin, they served the function of smoothing the cave
Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. The term applies to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness. The word cave also includes smaller spaces like rock shelters, sea caves, and grottos.Speleology is the science of exploration and study...
floor. Fireplaces seem to have been distributed at random. Interestingly, although they were found in many other caves in the area, Taylor reports that there were no arrow
Arrow
An arrow is a shafted projectile that is shot with a bow. It predates recorded history and is common to most cultures.An arrow usually consists of a shaft with an arrowhead attached to the front end, with fletchings and a nock at the other.- History:...
parts found in Frightful Cave, “whose occupation was probably too early.”
Anthropological analysis
Inside Frightful Cave, comparisons of the different strataStratum
In geology and related fields, a stratum is a layer of sedimentary rock or soil with internally consistent characteristics that distinguish it from other layers...
allowed for temporal analysis of the cave’s
Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. The term applies to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness. The word cave also includes smaller spaces like rock shelters, sea caves, and grottos.Speleology is the science of exploration and study...
inhabitants, while comparisons to other caves
Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. The term applies to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness. The word cave also includes smaller spaces like rock shelters, sea caves, and grottos.Speleology is the science of exploration and study...
in the area allowed for spatial analysis. Spatially, it has been found that there was likely cultural
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
exchange between various nomadic groups
Nomad
Nomadic people , commonly known as itinerants in modern-day contexts, are communities of people who move from one place to another, rather than settling permanently in one location. There are an estimated 30-40 million nomads in the world. Many cultures have traditionally been nomadic, but...
both within the Coahuila
Coahuila
Coahuila, formally Coahuila de Zaragoza , officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Coahuila de Zaragoza is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico...
complex and across nearby regions.
Chronological trends have also been observed, indicating the repeated occupation by culturally
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
similar groups with evolving cultural
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
practices. In particular, changes in the use of the space within the cave
Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. The term applies to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness. The word cave also includes smaller spaces like rock shelters, sea caves, and grottos.Speleology is the science of exploration and study...
suggest a changing way of life. Taylor notes that while the bottom two strata
Stratum
In geology and related fields, a stratum is a layer of sedimentary rock or soil with internally consistent characteristics that distinguish it from other layers...
had tamped floors, relatively low levels of bat guano and displayed “a strong tendency to deposit sandals in the farthest recesses of the cave,” in the later stratum no floor had been prepared, there was relatively more bat guano
Guano
Guano is the excrement of seabirds, cave dwelling bats, and seals. Guano manure is an effective fertilizer due to its high levels of phosphorus and nitrogen and also its lack of odor. It was an important source of nitrates for gunpowder...
, and sandals
Sandal
Sandals are an open type of outdoor footwearSandal may also refer to:* Sandal Castle, site of the Battle of Wakefield in the Wars of the Roses* Sandal, Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England* Sandal, Afghanistan* Šandal, village in Slovakia...
were deposited in the center of the cave
Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. The term applies to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness. The word cave also includes smaller spaces like rock shelters, sea caves, and grottos.Speleology is the science of exploration and study...
. These trends are thought to indicate groups’ changing duration of stay, from “more or less constant in the lower levels” to “increasingly intermittent in the upper levels,” since it appears that less effort was put in to keep a clean living space. Changes of this nature would make sense if groups no longer spent such long periods in the cave
Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. The term applies to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness. The word cave also includes smaller spaces like rock shelters, sea caves, and grottos.Speleology is the science of exploration and study...
. This development has been linked to a known increase in aridity
Aridity index
An aridity index is a numerical indicator of the degree of dryness of the climate at a given location. A number of aridity indices have been proposed ; these indicators serve to identify, locate or delimit regions that suffer from a deficit of available water, a condition that can severely affect...
in the region which may have resulted in a new distribution of food sources.
The argument for changing migration
Human migration
Human migration is physical movement by humans from one area to another, sometimes over long distances or in large groups. Historically this movement was nomadic, often causing significant conflict with the indigenous population and their displacement or cultural assimilation. Only a few nomadic...
based on new patterns of subsistence is a strong one, as groups in the desert tradition are widely believed to have been nomads
Nomad
Nomadic people , commonly known as itinerants in modern-day contexts, are communities of people who move from one place to another, rather than settling permanently in one location. There are an estimated 30-40 million nomads in the world. Many cultures have traditionally been nomadic, but...
who would have settled in various areas as local wild foodstuffs became available. Shafer has theorized that Frightful Cave may have been part of a seasonal round made by these hunter-gatherer groups
Hunter-gatherer
A hunter-gatherer or forage society is one in which most or all food is obtained from wild plants and animals, in contrast to agricultural societies which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was the ancestral subsistence mode of Homo, and all modern humans were...
, which, along with other caves
Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. The term applies to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness. The word cave also includes smaller spaces like rock shelters, sea caves, and grottos.Speleology is the science of exploration and study...
in the area, would have been inhabited from spring
Spring (season)
Spring is one of the four temperate seasons, the transition period between winter and summer. Spring and "springtime" refer to the season, and broadly to ideas of rebirth, renewal and regrowth. The specific definition of the exact timing of "spring" varies according to local climate, cultures and...
through early summer
Summer
Summer is the warmest of the four temperate seasons, between spring and autumn. At the summer solstice, the days are longest and the nights are shortest, with day-length decreasing as the season progresses after the solstice...
, “when foods such as flowers, bulbs, fruits and plums were available.” Similarly, Taylor posits water accessibility to be the determining factor of such groups’ migratory
Human migration
Human migration is physical movement by humans from one area to another, sometimes over long distances or in large groups. Historically this movement was nomadic, often causing significant conflict with the indigenous population and their displacement or cultural assimilation. Only a few nomadic...
patterns, meaning shifts thereof may also be accounted for by increasing aridity. Changes in the style and construction of the radiocarbon-dated sandals
Sandal
Sandals are an open type of outdoor footwearSandal may also refer to:* Sandal Castle, site of the Battle of Wakefield in the Wars of the Roses* Sandal, Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England* Sandal, Afghanistan* Šandal, village in Slovakia...
also suggest a certain cultural discontinuity in the later occupation of Frightful Cave.
There is almost no evidence concerning the religious
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
or artistic
Art
Art is the product or process of deliberately arranging items in a way that influences and affects one or more of the senses, emotions, and intellect....
cultural lives of Frightful Cave’s inhabitants, with the exception being the human hair found deposited at the back of the cave
Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. The term applies to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness. The word cave also includes smaller spaces like rock shelters, sea caves, and grottos.Speleology is the science of exploration and study...
in the first stratum
Stratum
In geology and related fields, a stratum is a layer of sedimentary rock or soil with internally consistent characteristics that distinguish it from other layers...
. The hairs appear to have “been cut at regular intervals of about one month” based on their cut ends and lengths. Archival
Archive
An archive is a collection of historical records, or the physical place they are located. Archives contain primary source documents that have accumulated over the course of an individual or organization's lifetime, and are kept to show the function of an organization...
evidence suggests this may have been a mourning practice
Mourning
Mourning is, in the simplest sense, synonymous with grief over the death of someone. The word is also used to describe a cultural complex of behaviours in which the bereaved participate or are expected to participate...
, but the purpose of such ritual
Ritual
A ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value. It may be prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of a community. The term usually excludes actions which are arbitrarily chosen by the performers....
handling of hair has not been concretely determined.