Green lacewings are
insectInsects are arthropods, having a hard exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet and include more than a million species that are already described. Insects represent more than half of all...
s in the large
familyIn biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus...
Chrysopidae of the
orderIn scientific classification used in biology, the order is# a taxonomic rank used in the classification of organisms. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus, and species, with order fitting in between class and family...
NeuropteraThe insect order Neuroptera, or net-winged insects, includes the lacewings, mantidflies, antlions, and their relatives. The order contains some 4,000 species...
. There about 85
generaGenera is a commercial operating system and development environment for Lisp machines developed by Symbolics. It is essentially a fork of an earlier operating system originating on the MIT AI Lab's Lisp machines which Symbolics had used in common with LMI and Texas Instruments...
and (differing between sources) 1,300–2,000
speciesIn biology, a species is:* a taxonomic rank or* a unit at that rank ....
in this widespread group. Members of the genera
Chrysopa and
Chrysoperla are very common in
North AmericaNorth America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and in the western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific...
and
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains , and the Black Sea to the southeast...
; they are very similar and many of their species have been moved from one genus to the other times and again, and in the non-scientific literature assignment to
Chrysopa and
Chrysoperla can rarely be relied upon. Since they are the most familiar neuropterids to many people, they are often simply called
"lacewings". But actually most of the diversity of Neuroptera are properly referred to as some sort of "lacewing", so
common lacewings is preferable.
Description and ecology
Green lacewings are delicate insects with a wingspan of 6 to over 65 mm, though the largest forms are tropical. They are characterized by a wide
costaCosta may refer to:* Costa , including origin of the name and people sharing the surname* Costa, Rib, from Latin costae* Costa, central strand of a bryophyte leaf or thallus...
l field in their wing venation, in which the cross-veins are. The bodies are usually bright green to greenish-brown, and the compound eyes are conspicuously
goldGold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. It has been a highly sought-after precious metal for coinage, jewelry, and other arts since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial deposits. Gold is...
en in many species. The wings are usually translucent with a slight iridescence; some have green wing veins or a cloudy brownish wing pattern. The vernacular name "stinkflies", used chiefly for
Chrysopa species but also for others (e.g.
Cunctochrysa) refers to their ability to release a vile smell from paired
prothoracalThe prothorax is the foremost of the three segments in the thorax of an insect, and bears the first pair of legs. Its principal sclerites are the pronotum , the prosternum , and the propleuron on each side. The prothorax never bears wings in extant insects, though some fossil groups possessed...
glands when handled.
Adults have
tympanal organA Tympanal organ is a hearing organ in insects, consisting of a membrane stretched across a frame backed by an air sac. Sounds vibrate the membrane, and the vibrations are sensed by a chordotonal organ....
s at the forewings' base, enabling them to hear well. Some
Chrysopa show evasive behavior when they hear a
batBats are flying mammals in the order Chiroptera . The forelimbs of bats are webbed and developed as wings, making them the only mammals naturally capable of true and sustained flight. By contrast, other mammals said to fly, such as flying squirrels, gliding possums and colugos, glide rather than...
's
ultrasoundUltrasound is cyclic sound pressure with a frequency greater than the upper limit of human hearing. Although this limit varies from person to person, it is approximately 20 kilohertz in healthy, young adults and thus, 20 kHz serves as a useful lower limit in describing ultrasound...
calls: when in flight, they close their wings (making their
echolocationEcholocation, also called biosonar, is the biological sonar used by several animals such as dolphins, shrews, most bats, and most whales. The term was coined by Donald Griffin, who was the first to conclusively demonstrate its existence in bats...
al signal smaller) and drop down to the ground. Green lacewings also use substrate or body vibrations as a form of communication between themselves, especially during courtship. Species which are nearly identical
morphologicallyIn biology morphology is the form, structure and configuration of an organism.This includes aspects of the outward appearance as well as the form and structure of the internal parts like bones and organs...
may sometimes be separated more easily based on their mating signals. For example the southern European
Chrysoperla mediterranea looks almost identical to its northern relative
Chrysoperla carnea, but their courtship "songs" are very different; individuals of one species will not react to the other's vibrations.
LarvaA larva is a young form of animal with indirect development, going through or undergoing metamorphosis ....
e have either a more slender "
humpbackHumpback may refer to:* Humpback whale* Humpback dolphin* Humpback salmon* Humpback, a variant of hunchback...
ed" shape with a prominent bulge on the
thoraxThe thorax is a division of an animal's body that lies between the head and the abdomen.In mammals, the thorax is the region of the body formed by the sternum, the thoracic vertebrae and the ribs. It extends from the neck to the diaphragm, and does not include the upper limbs. The heart and the...
, or are plumper, with long bristles jutting out from the sides. These will collect debris and food remains – the empty integuments of
aphidAphids, also known as plant lice , are small plant-eating insects, and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Aphids are among the most destructive insect pests on cultivated plants in temperate regions...
s, most notably – that provide
camouflageCamouflage is a method of crypsis that allows an otherwise visible organism or object to remain indiscernible from the surrounding environment through deception. Examples include a tiger's stripes and the battledress of a modern soldier...
from birds.
Adults are
crepuscularCrepuscular is a term used to describe some animals that are primarily active during twilight, that is at dawn and at dusk. The word is derived from the Latin word crepusculum, meaning "twilight." Crepuscular is thus in contrast with diurnal and nocturnal behavior. Crepuscular animals may also be...
or nocturnal. They feed on
pollenPollen is a fine to coarse powder containing the microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce the male gametes . Pollen grains have a hard coat that protects the sperm cells during the process of their movement between the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants or from the male cone to the...
, nectar and
honeydewHoneydew may refer to:* Honeydew , a cultivar group of melon* Honeydew , a sugar-rich sticky substance secreted by aphids and some scale insects* Honeydew, California, a town* Dr...
supplemented with
miteMites, along with ticks, belong to the subclass Acarina and the class Arachnida. Mites are among the most diverse and successful of all the invertebrate groups. They have exploited an incredible array of habitats, and because of their small size most go totally unnoticed...
s, aphids and other small
arthropodAn arthropod is an invertebrate that has an exoskeleton , a segmented body, and jointed attachments called appendages. Arthropods are animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda , and include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and others...
s, and some, namely
Chrysopa, are mainly predatory. Others feed almost exclusively on nectar and similar substances, and have symbiotic
yeastYeasts are eukaryotic micro-organisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1,500 species currently described; they dominate fungal diversity in the oceans. Most reproduce asexually by budding, although a few do so by binary fission...
s in their digestive tract to help break down the food into
nutrientA nutrient is a chemical that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment. Nutrients are the substances that enrich the body. They build and repair tissues, give heat and energy, and regulate body processes...
s.
The eggs are deposited at night, singly or in small groups, and sit atop a slender stalk about 1 cm long; one female produces some 100–200 eggs. Eggs are placed on plants, usually when
aphidAphids, also known as plant lice , are small plant-eating insects, and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Aphids are among the most destructive insect pests on cultivated plants in temperate regions...
s are present nearby in numbers. Immediately after hatching, the larvae
moultIn biology, moulting signifies the manner in which an animal routinely casts off a part of its body , either at specific times of year, or at specific points in its life-cycle.Moulting can involve the epidermis , pelage In biology, moulting (or molting, also known as sloughing, shedding or for...
, then descend the eggstalk to feed. They are voracious predators, attacking most insects of suitable size, especially soft-bodied ones (aphids, caterpillars and other insect
larvaA larva is a young form of animal with indirect development, going through or undergoing metamorphosis ....
e, insect eggs, and at high population densities also each other). Therefore, the larvae are colloquially known as “aphid lions” (also spelled "aphidlions") or “aphid wolves,” similar to the related
antlionAntlions are a family of insects in the order Neuroptera with the scientific name Myrmeleontidae ; the most well-known genus is Myrmeleo. There are about 2,000 species...
s. Their senses are weakly developed, except that they are very sensitive to touch. Walking around in a haphazard fashion, the larvae sway their heads from one side to the other, and when they strike a potential prey object, the larva grasps it. Their
maxillaInsects exhibit a range of mouthparts, adapted to particular modes of feeding. The earliest insects had chewing mouthparts...
e are hollow, allowing a digestive secretion to be injected in the prey; the organs of an aphid can for example be dissolved by this in 90 seconds. Depending on environmental conditions, larvae need about 1–3 weeks to pupation which takes place in a
cocoonA cocoon is a pupal casing made by moths, caterpillars and other insect larvae.Cocoon may also refer to:*Apache Cocoon, web development software*Cocoon , a 1985 science fiction film**Cocoon: The Return, 1988 sequel to Cocoon...
; species from
temperateIn geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of the globe lie between the tropics and the polar circles. The changes in these regions between summer and winter are generally mild, rather than extreme hot or cold. But in continental areas, such as central North America the variations between summer...
regions usually overwinter as a prepupa, though
Chrysoperla carnea overwinters as newly-hatched adults.
Use in biological pest control
While depending on species and environmental conditions, some green lacewings will eat only about 150 prey items in their entire life, in other cases 100 aphids will be eaten in a single week. Thus, in several countries, millions of such voracious Chrysopidae are reared for sale as
biological control agentsBiological control of pests in agriculture is a method of controlling pests that relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms...
of insect and
miteMites, along with ticks, belong to the subclass Acarina and the class Arachnida. Mites are among the most diverse and successful of all the invertebrate groups. They have exploited an incredible array of habitats, and because of their small size most go totally unnoticed...
pests in agriculture and gardens. They are distributed as eggs, since as noted above they are highly aggressive and cannibalistic in confined quarters; the eggs hatch in the field. Their performance is variable; thus, there is a lot of interest in further research to improve the use of green lacewings as
biological pest controlBiological control of pests in agriculture is a method of controlling pests that relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms...
.
Gardeners can attract lacewings, and therefore their larvae, to gardens by using companion plants. They are attracted by
angelicaAngelica is a genus of about 60 species of tall biennial and perennial herbs in the family Apiaceae, native to temperate and subarctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere, reaching as far North as Iceland and Lapland...
,
dillDill is a short-lived perennial herb. It is the sole species of the genus Anethum, though classified by some botanists in a related genus as Peucedanum graveolens C.B.Clarke.-Growth:...
, coreopsis, cosmos (plant),
sunflowerSunflowers are annual plants native to the Americas, that possess a large inflorescence .-Description :...
s, and the
beneficial weedA beneficial weed is any of various plants not generally considered domesticated, but which nonetheless has some companion plant effect, or else is edible or somehow beneficial. Beneficial weeds include a great many wildflowers, as well as many weeds that are commonly removed or...
, dandelion.
Systematics and taxonomy
For long, green lacewings were considered close relatives of the pleasing lacewings (
DilaridaeThe pleasing lacewings, Dilaridae, are a family of winged insects of the order Neuroptera.They were formerly placed in the superfamily Hemerobioidea...
) and brown lacewings (
HemerobiidaeHemerobiidae is a family of Neuropteran insects commonly known as brown lacewings. These insects differ from the somewhat similar Chrysopidae not only by the usual colouring but by the wing venation: hemerobiids having numerous long veins lacking in chrysopids...
) and placed in the
superfamilyIn biological classification, rank is the level in a taxonomic hierarchy. The most basic rank is that of species, the next most important is genus, and then family...
Hemerobioidea. But this grouping does not appear to be natural and misled most significantly by the supposed hemerobioideans' plesiomorphic
larvaA larva is a young form of animal with indirect development, going through or undergoing metamorphosis ....
e. Today, the Hemerobioidea are usually considered
monotypicIn biology, a monotypic taxon is a taxonomic group with only one type. The usage differs slightly between botany and zoology:In botany, a monotypic taxon is a taxon that has only one species: Ginkgo is a monotypic genus, while Ginkgoaceae is a monotypic family...
, containing only the brown lacewings; the green lacewings seem to be very closely related to the osmylids (
OsmylidaeOsmylidae are a small family of winged insects of the net-winged insect order Neuroptera. This family contains around 300 species. The osmylids are found all over the world except in North America...
), which have much more advanced larvae superficially resembling those of the spongillaflies (
SisyridaeThe Sisyridae, commonly known as spongillaflies, is a family of winged insects of the order Neuroptera. Approximately 60 living species are known.-Description:...
) with which the spongillaflies were thus formerly allied. Thus, though the superfamily Osmyloidea is often considered monotypic these days too following the spongillaflies' removal from there, it is arguably better to include the osmylids as well as the green lacewings there.
Selected genera
- Abachrysa
- Ankylopteryx
- Anomalochrysa
- Apochrysa – includes Anapochrysa, Lauraya, Nacaura, Oligochrysa, Synthochrysa
- Brinckochrysa
- Ceraeochrysa
- Chrysocerca
- Chrysopa
- Chrysoperla
- Chrysopidia
- Chrysopodes
- Cunctochrysa
- Dichochrysa
- Domenechus
- Eremochrysa
- Evanochrysa
- Glenochrysa
- Himalochrysa
- Italochrysa
- Joguina – includes Lainius
- Leucochrysa
- Loyola – includes Claverina
- Mallada
- Nacarina
- Nineta
- Nobilinus
- Nodita
- Nothancyla
- Nothochrysa
- Odontochrysa
- Peyerimhoffina
- Plesiochrysa
- Rexa
- Retipenna
- Semachrysa
- Signochrysa
- Sinochrysa
- Suarius
- Tibetochrysa
- Tumeochrysa
- Xanthochrysa
- Yunchrysopa
Compared to other Neuroptera, which have an extensive, sometimes extremely abundant, fossil record, green lacewings are not known from that many fossils, and these are not generally well-studied.
External links